A DICTIONARY OF ISLAM A DICTIONARY OF ISLAM A Cyclopaedia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theological Terms of the Muhammadan Religion With Numerous Illustrations THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES NIAX DELHI * CHENNAI ★ 2009 ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES * 6A SHAHPUR JAT, NEW DELHI - 1 10 049 Tel : +91-11- 26491586, 26494059 Fax : Oil- 26494946 email : aes@acs.ind.m * 2/15, 2nd FLOOR, ANSARI ROAD, D ARY AG AN J, NEW DELHI - 1100 02 Tel: +91- 11- 23262044 email : acsdg@aes.ind. in * 19, (NEW NO. 40), BALAJ1 NAGAR FIRST STREET, ROYAPETTAH, CHENNAI - 600 014 Tel. : +91- 44 - 28133040 / 28131391 Fax : 044 - 28131391 email : a9ianeds@md3.vsnl.net. in www.aes.ind.in Printed and Hand-Bound in India 00 AES First Published London, 1885. First AES Reprint : New Delhi, 1996. Second AES Reprint : New Delhi, 2009. ISBN. 8120606728 FAN 9788120606725 Published by Gautam Jetley For .ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES 6A. Shahpur Jat, New Delhi - 1 10 049. Processed by AES Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110049 Printed at daico Printers. New Delhi - 1 10002 A DICTIONARY OF ISLAM BEING A CYCLOPAEDIA OF THE DOCTRINES, RITES, CEREMONIES, AND CUSTOMS, TOGETHER WITH THE TECHNICAL AND THEOLOGICAL TERMS, OF THE MUHAMMADAN RELIGION. BY THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES, B.D., M.R.A.S. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. thr ka'bah. (Burton.) W. H. ALLEN & CO., LONDON: 13, WATERLOO PLACE, PALL MALL. S.W. 1885. DEDICATED ( WITH PERMISSION) TO THE RIGHT REVEREND THOMAS VALPY FRENCH, D.D., FIRST BISHOP OF LAHORE, WITH MUCH AFFECTION AND ESTEEM, BY HIS LORDSHIP’S OBEDIENT SERVANT, THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES. PREFACE. The increased interest manifested in relation to all matters affecting the East, and the great attention now given to the study of compara¬ tive religion, seem to indicate that the time has come when an attempt should be made to place before the English-speaking people of the wrorld a systematic exposition of the doctrines of the Muslim Faith. The present work is intended to supply this w^ant, by giving, in a tabu¬ lated form, a concise account of the doctrines, rites, ceremonies, and customs, together with the technical and theological terms, of the Muhammadan religion. Although compiled by a clergyman who has had the privilege of being engaged in missionary work at Peshawar for a period of twenty years, this “ Dictionary of Islam ” is not intended to be a contro¬ versial attack on the religious system of Muhammad, but rather an exposition of its principles and teachings. Divided, as the Muslim world is, into numerous sects, it has been found impossible to take into consideration all the minor differences which exist amongst them. The Dictionary is, for the most part, an exposition of the opinions of the Sunni sect, with explanations of the chief points on which the Shiah and Wahhabi schools of thought differ from it. Very special attention has been given to the views of the Wahhabis, as it is the Author’s conviction that they represent the earliest teachings of the Muslim Faith as they came from Muhammad and his immediate successors. When it is remembered that, according to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt’s estimate, the Shiah sect only numbers some ten millions out of the one hundred and seventy-five millions of Mu¬ hammadans in the world, it will be seen that, in compiling a Dic¬ tionary of Muhammadanism, the Shiah tenets must of necessity occupy a secondary place in the study of the religion. Still, upon all important questions of theology and jurisprudence, these differences have been noticed. The present book does not profess to be a Biographical Dic¬ tionary. The great work of Ibn Khallikan, translated into English by VI PREFACE. Slane, supplies this. But short biographical notices of persons con¬ nected with the early history of Islam have been given, inasmuch as many of these persons are connected with religious dogmas and cere¬ monies ; the martyrdom of Husain, for instance, as being the foundation of the Muharram ceremonies ; Abu Hanifah, as connected with a school of jurisprudence ; and the Khalifah 'Umar as the real founder of the religious and political power of Islam. In the biographical notice of Muhammad, the Author has expressed his deep obligations to Sih William Muir's great work, the Life of Mahomet. It is impossible for anyone to write upon the subject of Muham¬ madanism without being largely indebted, not only to Sir William Muir’s books, but also to the works of the late Mr. Lane, the author of Modern Egyptians , new editions of which have been edited by Mr. Stanley Lane Poole. Numerous quotations from these volumes will be found in the present work. But whilst the Author has not hesitated in this compilation to avail himself of the above and similar works, he has, during a long residence amongst Muhammadan peoples, been able to consult very numerous Arabic and Persian works in their originals, and to obtain the assistance of very able Muhammadan native scholars of all schools of thought in Islam. He is specially indebted to Dr. F. Steingass, of the Univer¬ sity of Munich, the author of the English- Arabic and Arabic-English Dictionaries , for a careful revision of the whole work. The interesting article on writing is from the pen of this distinguished scholar, as well as some valuable criticisms on the composition of the qtir'an, and a biographical sketch of the Khalifah ‘Umar. Orientalists may, perhaps, be surprised to find that Sikhism has been treated as a sect of Islam, but the Compiler has been favoured with a very able and scholarly article on the subject by Mr. F. Pincott, M.R.A.S., in which he shows that the "religion of Nanak was really intended as a compromise between Hinduism and Muhammadanism, if it may not even be spoken of as the religion of a Muhammadan sect,'’ — the publication of which in the present work seemed to be most desirable. At the commencement of the publication of the work, the Author received very valuable assistance from the Rev. F. A. P. Shirreff, M.A., Principal of the Lahore Divinity College, as well as from other friends, which he must gratefully acknowledge. Amongst the numerous suggestions which the Author received for PREFACE. Vll the compilation of this Dictionary, was one from a well-known Arabic scholar, to the effect that the value of the work would be enhanced if the quotations from the Qur’an, and from the Traditions, were given in their original Arabic. This, however, seemed incompatible with the general design of the book. The whole structure of the work is intended to be such as will make it available to English scholars unac¬ quainted with the Arabic language ; and, consequently, most of the information given will be found under English words rather than under their Arabic equivalents. For example, for information regarding the attributes of the Divine Being, the reader must refer to the English God, and not to the Arabic allah ; for all the ritual and laws regarding the liturgical service, to the English prayer, and not to the Arabic salat; for the marriage laws and ceremonies, to the Eng¬ lish marriage, and not to the Arabic nikah. It is hoped that, in this way, the information given will be available to those who are entirely unacquainted with Oriental languages, or, indeed, with Eastern life. The quotations from the Qur’an have been given chiefly from Palmer’s and Rodwell’s translations; and those in the Quranic narra¬ tive of Biblical characters (moses for example) have been taken from Mr. Stanley Lane Poole’s edition of Lane’s Selections. But, when needful, entirely new translations of quotations from the Qur’an have been given. The Dictionary or Islam ’ has been compiled with very con¬ siderable study and labour, in the hope that it will be useful to many ; —to the Government official called to administer justice to Muslim peoples ; to the Christian missionary engaged in controversy with Mus¬ lim scholars; to the Oriental traveller seeking hospitality amongst Mushm peoples; to the student of comparative religion anxious to learn the true teachings of Islam to all, indeed, who care to know what are those leading principles of thought which move and guide one hundred and seventy-five millions of the great human family, forty millions of whom are under the rule of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Empress of India. : July 2Zrdt 1885. The Arabic Letters in this Volume have been Transliterated AS FOLLOWS* : - Arabic. Names. j Roman. Pronunciation. \ Alif A cif if u , at the beginning of a word. S-* Ba B As in English. o Ta T A soft dental, like the Italian t. vi> Sa •• S •• Very nearly the sound of th in thing. C Jim J As in English. c Ha H • A strong aspirate. t Kha Kh Guttural, like the Scotch cli in loch. v> Dal D Soft dental. j Zal Z A sound between dh and z. ; Ra R \ Za z ) j V* Sin 1 S > As in English. Shin Sh ) L/9 Sad « s • A strongly articulated s ; in Central Asia as sw. u* Zad z « Something like the foreign pronunciation of the th in that ; in Central Asia and India z or zw. L Ta T A strongly articulated palatal t. k Za Z A strongly articulated z. ‘Ain i A guttural, the pronunciation of which must be learnt by ear. Ghain Gli A strong guttural gj±. u Fa F As in English. J Qiif Q Like ck in stuck. ct) Kaf K J Lam L r M i in M u Nun N VAs in English. A Ha H J Wau W cS Ya Y j Fathah a 'f Kasrah i [ As in Italian. * Zammah u ) • Hamzah t Pronounced as a, », u , preceded by a very slight aspiration. DICTIONARY OF ISLAM. A. AARON. Arabic Ha-run The account given of Aaron in the QurTm will be found in the article on Moses. In Surah xix. 29, the Virgin Mary is addressed as “ the Sister of Aaron.” [mary, moses.] ABAD (jA ) . Eternity ; without <*nd, as distinguished from Azal without beginning. ‘ABASA “ He frowned.” The title of the Lxxxth chapter of the Qur’an. It is said that a blind man, named ‘Abdu’llah ibn Umm Maktum, once interrupted Muham¬ mad in conversation with certain chiefs of Quraish. The Prophet, however, took no notice of him. but frowned and turned away ; and in the first verse of this Surah, he is represented as reproved by God for having done so: — “ He frowned and turned his back, for that the blind man came unto him.” ‘ABBAS (^-Qx). The son of ‘Abdu ‘I-Muttalib, and consequently the paternal uncle of Muhammad. The most celebrated of the “Companions,” and the founder of the Abbaside dynasty, which held the Khalifato for a period of 509 years, namely, from A.n. 749 to a. i). 1258. He died in a.ii. 32. lli.s son Ibn-‘ Abbas was also a celebrated autho¬ rity on Islamic traditions and law. [irn ‘abbas, abbasides.] ABBASIDE S. Arabic al-( Abbdslyah The name of a dynasty of Khalifahs descended from al-‘ Abbas, the son < f 'Abdu l-Muftalib. and a paternal uncle of Muhammad. On account of their descent from so near a relation of the Prophet, the Abbasides had, ever since the introduction of Islam, been very high in esteem amongst the Vrabs, and had at an early period begun to excite the jealousy of the Umaiyade Khalifahs, who after the defeat of ‘All occupied the throne of the Arabian Empire. The Abbas- ides had for some time asserted their claims to the Khalifate, and in a.d. 746 they com¬ menced open hostilities. In 749 the Abbaside Khallifah Abu ’l-‘Abbus, surnamed as-Saffah. “the blood-shedder,” was recognied as Kha- llfah at al-Kufah, and Marwan II., the last of the Umaiyade Khalifahs, was defeated and slain. Thirty-seven Khalifahs of the Abbaside dy¬ nasty reigned over the Muhammadan empire, extending over the period from a.ii. 132 (a.d. 749-50) to a.ii. 656 (a.d. 1258). The names of the Abbaside Khalifahs are: — Abu ’l-‘Abbas as-Saffiili (a.i>. 749), al-Mansur (a.d. 754), al-Mahdi (a.d. 775), al-Iladi (a.d. 785), Harun ar-Rashid (a.d. 786), al-Amin (a.d. 809), al-Ma'mun (a.d. 813). al-Mu‘tasim (a.d. 833), al-Wasiq (a.d. 842), al-Mutawakkil (a.d. 847), al-Muntasir (a.d. 861), al-Musta‘in (a.d. 862), al-Mu‘tazz (a.d. 866), al-Muhtadi (a.d. 869), al-Mu‘tamid (a.d. 870), al-Mu‘tazid (a.d. 892)) al-Muktafi (a.d. 902), al-Muqtadir (a.d. 908), al-Qahir (a.d. 932), ar-RazI (a.d. 934), al-Muttaqi (a.d 940), al-Mustaqfi (a.i>. 944), al-MutT (a.d. 945), at-Tiir (a.d. 974). al-Qadir (a.d. 994), al-Qaim (a.d. 1031), al- Muqtadi (a.d. 1075), al-Mustazliir (a.d. 1094). al-Mustarshid (a.d. 1118), ar-Rashid (a.d. 1135), al-Muqtafi (a.d. 1136), al-Mustanjid (a.d. 1160), al-Mustazi (a.d. 1 170), an-Nasir (a.d. 1180), az-Zahir (a.d. 1225), al-Mustansir (a.d. 1226), al-Musta‘sim (a.d. 1242 to a.d. 1258). In the reign of al-Musta‘sim Ilfilaku, grand¬ son of .Jingiz Khan, entered Persia and became Sultan a.d. 1256. In 1258 he took Baghdad and put the Khalifah al-Musta‘sim to death, [khalifah.] ABDATj (JUil). “Substitutes,” pl* °f Badaf. Certain persons by whom, it is said. Cod continues the world in existence. Their number is seventy, of whom forty reside in Syria, and thirty* elsewhere. When one dies another takes his place, being so 1 2 ABDU ’LLAR appointed by God. It is one of the signs of tlie last day that the . I bdul will come from byi ia. (Mishka I, xxiii. c. 3.) Xo one pre- tends to be able to identify these eminent persons in the world. God alone knows who they are, and where they are. ‘ABDU ’LLAH (). One of Muhammad's secre¬ taries. It is related that, when 31 uhammad instructed ‘Abdu ’llah to write down the words (Surah xxiii. 12-11), “ We (God) have created man from an extract of clav . . . then we produced it another creation,” ‘Abdu ’llah exclaimed, “ And blessed be God, the best of creators”; and Muhammad told him to write that down also. Whereupon Abdu ’llah boasted that he had been inspired with a sentence which the Prophet had ac¬ knowledged to be part of the Qur’an. It is of him that it is written in the Qur'an, Surah vi. 1)3, “ Who is more unjust than he who devises against God a lie, or says, ‘ I am inspired,’ when he is not inspired at all.’’ ‘ABDU’L-MUTTALIB(^1UJU.c). Muhammad's grandfather and his guardian for two years. He died, aged 82, A.n. 578. His sons were ‘Abdu ’llah (Muhammad's father), al-Haris, az-Zuhair. Abu Talih. Abu Lahab, al-‘ Abbas, and Hamza. ‘ABDU ’L-QADIR AL-JILANI The celebrated founder of the Qadiriynh order of darweshos, surnamod Plr-Dastagir. lie died and was buried at Baghdad, a.u. 5GI. ‘ABDU ’R-RAHMAN IBN ‘AUF (w*}C One of the Com¬ panions who embraced Islam at a very early period, and was one of those who tied to Ethiopia. He also accompanied Muhammad in all his battles, and received twenty wounds at Thud. He died A.n. 32, aged 72 or 75, and was buried at Baql‘u '1-Gbarqnd, the graveyard of nl-Madinnh. ABEL. Arabic IiubJl Heb. Hebei. In the Qur’an “ the two V V v sons of Adamr are called Hub’ll wo Qabil, and the following is tho account given of them in that book (Surah v. 30-35), together with the remarks of tho commentators in it dies (a* rendered in Mr. Lane’s S 'flection*. Jaded., p. 53), “ Re ite unto them the history ef the two sons of Adam, namely, Abel nnd Coin, with truth. When they offered "their] offering to (Jo / (Ain's f ~ing o ram, and , Jain * being produce of the earth'). nnd it wns accepted from one of them (that if, from At*!: ‘arid jor jin descended from hemen, mid devolved Ins offering ), and it was not accepted from the other, Coin was enraged ; but he concealed his ( ,l> H tinti! Adorn performed n pilgrimage , when he said unto his brother , I will assuredly slay thee. Abel mid. Wherefore 1 Coin answered, Jlecouse of the acceptance of thine offering to the exclusion of mine. Abel replied, God only, accepteth from the pious. If thou stretch forth to me thy hand to slay me, I will not stretch forth to thee my hand to slay thee ; for I fear God, the Lord of the worlds. I desire that thou shouldst bear the sin [which thou intemlest to commit] against me, by staging me, and thy sin which thou host com¬ mitted before, and thou wilt be of the compa¬ nions of the fire. — And that is the recompense of the offenders. — But his soul suffered him to slay his brother : so ho slew him : and he became of [the number of] those who suffer loss. And he knew not what to do with him ; fur he was the. first dead person upon the /are of the earth of the sons of Adam. So he carried him upon his boek. And God sent a raven, which scratched up the earth with its bill and its talons and raised it over a dead raven thot was with it until it lad it, to show him how he should hide the corpse of his brother. Ho said, O my disgrace! Am I unable to bo like this raven, and to hide tho corpse of my brother? — And ho became of [the number ofj the repentant. And he digged [a gravej for lam anil hid him. — On account of this which Cain did Wo commanded the children of Israel that he who should slay a soul (not for the latter's having slain a soul or committed wickedness in tho earth, such as infidelity, or adultery, or intercepting the way, and the like) [should be regarded] as though he had slain all mankind ; and ho who saveth it alive, by abstaining from slaying it, as though he had saved alive all mankind.” “ The occasion of their making this offer¬ ing is thus related, according to the common tradition in the East. Each of them being born with a twin-sister, when ,hey were grown up, Adam, by God's direction, ordered Cain to marry Abel's twin-sister, and Abel to marry Cain's : (for it being tho common opinion that marriages ought not to be had in tho nearest degrees of consanguinity, since they must necessarily marrv their sisters, it seemed reasonable to suppose they ought to take those of the remoter degree ;) but this Cain refusing to agree to, because bis own sister was the handsomest, Adam ordered them to make their offerings to God. thereby referring the disputo to His determination. The commeutators say Cain’s offering was a sheaf of the very worst of his coni, but Abel's a fat lamb of the best of his dock."— Sale’s Koran. I., p. 122. ‘ABID (oA«). “A worshipper [of God].” A term generally used for a devout person. Tho word frequently occurs in the QurVm : e a. Surah ii. 132: “ The baptism Cdby bib) of God! And who is better than God nt bamizing? We ore the worshippers ('abidini) of God.” The word nibghth is trans- AEIQ ABLUTION 3 lated by Professor Palmer “ dye’* and •* dyeing,” but Sale, following the Muslim commentators, al-BaizawI, Jalalu ’d-din, and Husaini, who say itrefers to the Christian rite, translates it •« baptism.” Others say that it means fitrah or din, the religion of God, with an adapta- tation to which mankind are created. See Lane’s Lexicon, [baptism.] ABIQ A runaway slave. [absconding of slaves.] ABJAJL) The name of an arithmetical arrangement of the alphabet, the letters of which have different powers from one to one thousand. It is in the order of the alphabet as used by the Jews as far as 400, the six remaining letters being added by the Arabians. The letters spell the words — abjad haicwax hutti kalaraan sa'Jas qarashat sa/./ntz zctzirjh The author of the Arabic Lexicon, al-Qamw , says that the first six words are the names of celebrated kings of Madyan (Midian), and that the last two words were added by the Arabians. Some say they are the names of the eight sons of the inventor of the Arabic character, Mur amir ibn Murra. The following is a list of the letters with their English equivalents, and the power of each in numbers : — 1 a (i, •2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 oO b J d h tv z h t y k i m n e j ; 3 t L c5 c*! J r 0 60 70 80 90 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 s < / s r sh t $ kh LT* t l a u° J t J u6 l gk t [exorcism.] ABLUTION. Arabic, waziV , wu* (V?)> Persian, cibdast Ah] lion is described by Muhammad as •• the half laith and the key of prayer” {Mishkat. iii. 3 and is founded on the authority of the Our'; surah v. 8, “ O Bcdievers ! when ye prepr yourselves for prayer, wash your* faces a bands up to the elbows, and wipe your hea and your feet to the ankles.” These ablutions are absolutely necessary a preparation for the recital of the liturgii oi m of prayer, and are performed as follow J he worshipper, having tucked up hisslc^ • j *o higher than his elbows, washes 1 mnd, three times ; then ho rinses his hi- H p?l8, ^r°T,ng the vater into it wi hand K!‘) hand' After thift’ he’ with bis »'ig it ^n’a bth°W8 WatCr UP his nostrilfb snufli n up at the same time, and then blows it 0’ compressing his nostrils with the thumb and finder of the left hand — this being also per¬ formed three times. He then washes his face three times, throwing up the water with both hands. He next washes his right hand and arm, as high as the elbow, as many times, causing the water to run along his arm from the palm of the hand to the elbow, and in the same manner he washes the left. Then heN draws his wetted right hand over tin1 upper part of his head, raising his turban or cap with his left. If he has a beard, he then combs it with the wetted fingers of his right hand, holding his hand with the palm forwards, and passing the fingers through his beard from the throat upwards. He then puts the tips of his fore-lingers into his cars an 1 twists them round, passing his thumbs al the same time round the back of the ears from the bottom upwards. Next, he wipes his neck with the back of the fingers of both hands, making the ends of his fingers meet behind his neck, and then drawing them for¬ ward. Lastly, he washes his feet, as high as the ankles, and passes his fingers between the toes. During this ceremony, which is gene¬ rally performed in less than three minutes, the intending worshipper usually recites some pious ejaculations or prayers. For example : — Before commencing the wazii : — “I am gojng to purify myself from all bodily qp- cleanness, preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of duty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the name of God. the Great and Mighty'. Praise be to God who has given us grace to be Muslims. Islam is a truth and infidelity a falsehood.” When washing the nostrils : — “ O my God, if I am pleasing in Thv sight, jierfume me with the odours of Paradise.” ^ When washing the right hand : — “ O my God, on the day of judgment, place the book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with favour.” ^ hen washing the left hand : — “ O my God. place not at the lesurrection the book of my actions in my left hand.” The Shiya‘is, acting more in accordance with the text of the Qur’an quoted above, only wipe, or rub ( mo salt ) the feet, instead of washing them, as do the Sunnis. The ablution need not be performed before each of the five stated periods of prayer, when the person is conscious of having avoided every kind of impurity since the last performance of the ablution. The private parts of the body must also be purified when necessary. M lion water cannot be procured, or would bo injurious to health, the ablution may be performed with dust or sand. This ceremony is called Tayannnum (q.v ) The washing of the whole body is necessary after certain periods of impurity, [gim sl ] The brushing of the teeth is also a religious dut-y. [mis war.] The benefits of ablution arc highly exto led in the sayings of Muhammad. e.q., ‘ He who performs the wax ft' thoroughly will extract all sin from his bodv. even though it may be lurking under his finger nails." - Tn 4 ABORTION ABRAHAM the day of resurrection people shall come with bright faces, hands and feet, and there will be jewels in every place where the waters of the wazu’ have reached.” (Mishka t, iii. I.) VESSELS FOR ABLUTIONS USED IN AFGHAN¬ ISTAN AND INDIA VESSELS FOR ABLUTIONS USED IN' EG TPT. (LANE’S “ EGYPTIANS.”) In all the principal mosques there are tanks, or wells, which supply water for the purposes of lega1 purification, [purification.] ABORTION. Arabic There is no mention of the subject in the Qur’an, hut according to the b’atdwi 'A/amglri (vol. iv. p. it is forbidden after the child is formed in the womb. Muhammad is related to have ordered prayers to be said over an abortion, when supplication should be made for the father und mother, for forgiveness and mercy. ( Mishkut , v. c. 2.) ABRAHAM. Arabic Ibrahim (^\)A). One of the six great pro¬ phets to whom God delivered special laws. The “Friend of God." Khalilu 'lliih, to whom were rovenled twenty portions ( [salnfah ) of Scripture. Abraham is very frequently mentioned in kb Qur'an, together with UhmaH m-l Isaac. The following are Mr. Lane’s selections (giving in italics the remarks of Muslim commenta¬ tors) “ Remember when Abraham said to fits father Azar {this was the surname of 'Tei ah'), Dost thou take images as deities ? Verily I see thee and thy people to be in a manifest error. — (And thus, as We showed him the erroi of his father and his people, did We show Abraham the kingdom of the heavens and the earth, and [We did so] that he might be of [the number of] those who firmly believe.) And when the night overshadowed him, he saw a star (it is said that it was Venus'), [and] he said unto his people, who were astrologers, This is my Lord, according to your assertion. — But when it set, he said, I like not those that set, to take them as Lords, since it is not meet for a Lord to experience alteration and change oj place, as they are of the nature of accidents. Yet this had no effect upon them. And when he saw the moon rising, he said unto them . This is my Lord. — But when it set, he said. Verily if my Lord direct me not (if He eon- fnn me not in the right way). I shall assuredly be of the erring people. — This was a hint to his people that they were in en or ; but it had no effect upon them. And when he saw the sun rising, he said, This is my Lord. This is- greater than the star and the moon. — But when it set. and the jiroof had been rendered more strong to them, yet they desisted not , ho said, 0 my people, verily I am clear of the [things] which yo associate with God; namely , the images am! the heavenly bodies. So they said unto him. What dost thou worship ? He answered. Verily I direct my face unto Him who hath created the heavens and the earth, following the right religion, and I am not of the polytheists. — And his people argued with him ; [but] he said, Do ye argue with me respecting God. when He hath directed me. and I fear not what ye associate with Him unless my Lord will that aught displeasing should befall me? My Lord coir'irehendcth everything by His knowledge. AN ill ye not therefore consider? And wherefore should I fear what ye have associated with God. when ye fear not for your having associated with God that of which He hath not sent down unto you a proof? Then which of the two parties is the more worthy of safety ? Are we, or i/ouf If ye know uho is the more worth if of it, follow him. — God satth. They who have believed, and not mixed their belief with injustice (that is, polytheism), for these shall be safety from punishment, and they arc rightly directed." (Surah vi. 74-S2A “ Relate unto them, in the book ( that is, th ♦ Qur’an ). the hist' ry of Abraham. Verily, he was a person of great veracity, a prophet. When he said unto his father Azar. who wor¬ shipped idols, 0 my father, wherefore dost thou worship that which hearcth not, nor seetli. nor nverteth from thee aught, whether of advantage or of injury f O my father, verily [a degree] of knowledge hath come unto me. that hath not come unto .thee, therefore follow- mot I will direct thee into. a right way. (> mv father, *cr\c not the devil. ABRAHAM ABRAHAM 5 by obeying him in serving idols ; for the devil is very rebellious unto the Compassionate. 0 my father, verily I fear that a punishment will betide thee from the Compassionate, if thou repent not , and that thou wilt be unto the devil an aider, and a companion \n hell-fire. — He replied, Art thou a rejector of my Gods, 0 Abraham, and dost thou revile them ? If thou abstain not, I will assuredly assail thee with stones or with ill words ; therefore beware of me , and leave me for a long time. — Abra¬ ham said, Peace from me be on thee ! I will ask pardon for thee of my Lord ; for He is gracious unto me : and I will separate myself from you and from what ye invoke instead of God ; and I will call upon my Lord : perhaps I shall not be unsuccessful in calling upon my Lord, as ye are in calling upon idols. — And when he had separated him¬ self from them, and from what they wor¬ shipped instead of God, by going to the Holy Land , We gave him two sons, that he might cheer himself thereby , namely. Isaac and Jacob ; and each [of them] We made a prophet; and We bestowed upon them ( namely , the three), of our mercy, wealth and children ; and We caused them to receive high commendation.” (Surah xix. 42-51.) “ We gave unto Abraham his direction for¬ merly, before he had attained to manhood ; and We knew him to be worthy of it. When he said unto his father and his people, What are these images, to the worship of which ye are devoted ? — they answered, We found our fathers worshipping them, and we have fol¬ lowed their example. He said unto them, Verily ye arid your fathers have been in a manifest error. They said, Hast thou come unto us with truth in saying this , or art thou of those who jest? He answered. Nay, your Lord (the being who deserveth to he ivorshipped) is the Lord of the heavens and the earth, who created them, not after the similitude of anything pre-existing ; and I am of those who bear witness- thereof. And, by God, I will assuredly devise a plot against your idols after ye shall have retired, turning your backs. — So, after they had gone to their place of assembly, on a day when they held a festival, he break them in pieces with an axe, except the chief of them, upon whose neck he. hung the are; that they might return unto it (namely, the chiej ) and see what he had done with the others. They said, after they had returned and seen what he had done. Who. hath done this unto our gods? Verily he is of the unjust. — And some of them said, We heard a young man mention them reproachfully : he is called Abraham. They said, Then bring him before the eyes of the people, that they may bear witness against him of his having done it. They said unto him, when he had been brought, Hast thou done- thm unto our gods, 0 Abraham ? He answered. Nay, this their chief did it : and ask ye them, if they [can] Rpeak. And they returned unto them¬ selves, upon reflection , and said unto them¬ selves , \cril\' yo are the unjust, in worship- ping that which sprnketh not. Then they re¬ verted t* their obstinacy, and said. Verily thou knowest that these speak not : then wherefore dost thou order us to ask them ? He said, Do ye then worship, instead of God, that which doth not profit you at all, rior injure you if ye worship it not? Fie on you, and on that which ye worship instead of God ! Do ye not then understand? — They said, Burn ye him, and avenge vour gods, if ye will do so. So they collected abundance of fire¬ wood for him, and set fire to it ; and they bound Abraham, and put him into an engine, and cast him into the fire. But, saith God, We said, 0 fire, be thou cold, and a security unto Abra¬ ham ! So nought of him was burned save his bonds : the heat of the fire ceased, but its light remained ; and by God's saying, Security, — Abraham was saved from dying by reason of its cold. And they intended against him a plot ; but he caused them to be the sufferers. And we delivered him and Lot, the son of his brother Ilaran , from EI-'Eraq, [bringing them] unto the land which We blessed for the peoples, by the abundance of its rivers and trees , namely, Syria. Abraham took up his abode in Palestine, and Lot in El-Mutefikeh, be¬ tween which is a day's journey. And when Abraham had asked a son, We gave unto him Isaac, and Jacob as an additional gift, be¬ yond what he had asked, being a son's son ; and all of them "We made righteous persons and prophets. And We made them models of reli¬ gion who directed men by Our command unto Our religion ; and We commanded them by inspiration to do good works and to perform prayer and to give the appointed alms ; and they served Us. And unto Lot We gave judgment and knowledge; and. We delivered him from the city which committed filthy actions ; for they were a people of evil, shameful doers ; and We admitted him into our mercy; for he was [one] of the righteous.” (Surah xxi. 52-75.) “ Hast thou not considered him who disputed with Abraham concerning his Lord, because God had given him the kingdom ? And he was Nimrod. When Abraham said, (upon his saying unto him, Who is thy Lord, unto whom thou mvitest us?), My Lord is He who giveth life and causeth to die, — he replied, I give life and cause to die. — And he summoned two men, and slew one of them, and left the other. So when he saw that he understood not, Abra¬ ham said, And verily God bringeth the sun from the east : now do thou bring it from the west. — And he who disbelieved was con¬ founded ; and God directeth not the offending people.” (Surah ii. 2G0.) “ And Our messengers came formerly unto Abraham with good tidings of Isaac and Jacob, who should be after him. They said, Peace. He replied, Peace be on you. And he tarried not, but brought a roasted calf. And when he saw that their hands touched it not, he disliked them and conceived a fear of them. They said, Fear not : for we are sent unto the people of Lot, that we may destroy them. And his wife Sarah was standing serving them, and rIio laughed, rejoicing at the tidings of their destruction. And we gave her good tidings of Isaac; and after Isaac. Jacob. 6 ABRAHAM ABRAHAM She said, Alas ! Rhall I bear a child when I am an old woman of nine and ninety years , and when this my husband is an old man of a hundred or a hundred and twenty years ? Verily this [would be] a wonderful thing. — They said, Dost thou wonder at the com¬ mand of God? The mercy of God and His blessings be on you, 0 people of the house (of Abraham) l for He is praiseworthy, glorious. — And when the terror had departed from Abraham, and the good tidings had come unto him, he disputed with Us (that is , with Our messengers ) respecting the people of Lot; for Abraham was gentle, compassionate, repentant. And he said unto them , 117// ye destroy a city icherein are three hundred b< - He vers f -They answered , No. lie said. And will ye destroy a city icherein are two hundred believer si They answered. No. He said, And will ye destroy a city wherein are forty believers i They answered, No. He said, And will ye destroy a citi / wherein are fourteen believer si They answered. No. He said. And tell me, if there be in it one, believer i They answered, No. He said, Verily in it is Lot. They replied , We know best who is in it. And when their dispute had become tedious, they said, O Abraham, abstain from this disputa¬ tion ; for the command of thy Lord hath come for their destruction, and a punishment not [to be] averted is coming upon them.” (Surah xi. 72-78.) “And when Our decree for the destruction of the people of Lot came [to be executed], \\ e turned them (that is, their cities) upside- down; for Gabriel raised them to heaven, and let them fall upside-down to the earth ; and We rained upon them stones of baked clay, sent one after another, marked with thy Lord. each with the name of him upon whom it should be cast : and they [are] not far distant from the offenders ; that is, the stones are not, or the cities of the people o f Lot were not, far distant from the people o f Mekkeh." (Surah xi. 84.) “ And [Abraham] said [after his escape from Nimrod], Verily I am going unto my Lord, who will direct me unto the place whither He hath commanded me to go, namely. Syria. And when he had arrived at the Holy Land, he said, O my Lord, give me a son [who shall bo one] of the righteous, there¬ upon We gave him the glad tidings of a mild youth. And when he had attained to the age when he could work with him (as some say, seven years ; and some, thirteen), he said, O my child, verily I have seen in a dream that [ should sacrifice thee (and the dreams of pro- . phets are true; and their actions, by the com¬ mand of God) ; therefore consider what thou secst advisable for me to do. Ho replied, O my father, do what thou art commanded : thou shalt find me, if God please, [of the number] of the patient. And when they had resigned themselves, and he had laid him down on his temple, in [the valley of] Mma, and had drawn the knife across his throat (hut it produced no effect, by reason of an obstacle interposed by the divine power), Me called unto him, 0 Abraham, thou hast verified the vision. Verily thus do We reward the well- • doers. Verily this was the manifest trial. And We ransomed him whom he had been com¬ manded to sacrifice (and he was Ishmael or Isaac; foi there are two opinions) with an excellent victim, a ram from Paradise, the same that Abel had offered: Gabriel (on whom be peace!) brought it, and the lord Abraham sacrificed it, saying. God is most great ! And We left this salutation [to be bestowed] on him by the latter generations, Peace [be] on Abraham ! Thus do We reward the well¬ doers : for ho was of Our believing servants.” (Surah xxxvii. 97-111.) •• Remember when Abraham said, 0 mv Lord % show me how Thou will raise to life the dead. — He said, Hast thou not believed? He answered, Yea: but 1 have asked Thee that my heart may be at ease. Ho replied, Then take four birds and draw them towards thee, and cut them in pieces and mingle together their fesh and their feathers ; then place upon each mountain of thy land a portion of them, then call them unto thee: they shall come unto thee quickly; and know thou that God is mighty [and] wise. — And he took a peacock and a vulture and a raven and a cock, and did with them as hath been described, and kept their heads with him, and called them ; whereupon the portions few about, one to another , unfit they became complete: then they came to their heads." (Surah ii. 2l»2.) *• Remember, when his Lord had tried Abra¬ ham by [certain] words, commands and prohi¬ bitions, and he fulfilled them, God said unto him, I constitute thee a model of religion unto men. He replied, And of my offspring con¬ stitute models of religion. [God] said. My covenant doth not apply to the offenders, the unbelievers among them. — And when YY e ap¬ pointed the house (that is, the Ka‘buh) to be a place for the resort of men. and a place of security (a man would meet the slayer of his father there and he would not provoke him [to revenge].) and [said]. Take. 0 men, the sta¬ tion of Abraham (the stone upon which he stood ut the time of building the House) as a place of prayer, that ye may perform behind it the prayers of the two rak'ahs [which are or¬ dained to be performed, after the ceremony] of the circuiting [of the Ka‘bah]. — And Me commanded Abraham and Ishmael, [saying], Purifv my House (rid it of the idols) for those who shall compass [it], and those who shall abide Merc, and those w ho shall bow down and prostrate themselves. — And when Abra¬ ham said, O my Lord, make this place a secure territory ( and God hath answered his prayer, and made it a sacred place, wherein the blood of man is not shed, nor is any one op¬ pressed in it, nor is its game hunted [or shot], nor are its plants cut or' pulled up), and supply its inhabitants with fruits (which hath been done by the trans/yortmi/ of at- Ta»J from Tyrta thither, when it [that is, the territory of Makkah] was desert, without sown land^or water, such of them as shall believe in God and the last day .—He mentioned them pern- liar/y in the prayer agreeably with the saying of God, My covenant doth not apply to the offender,.— Gael replied. And I nail supply ABRAHAM ABU HANIFAH 7 him who disbelieveth : I will make him to , onjoy a supply of food in this world, a little u'hilc : then I will force him, in the world to come , to the punishment of the fire ; and evil ;hall be the transit.’* (Surah ii. 118-120.) “ And remember when Abraham was raising the foundations of the House (that is, bund¬ ing it), together with Ishmael, and they said , 0 our Lord, accept of us our building; for Thou art the Hearer of ichat is said, the Knower of what is done. 0 our Lord, also make us resigned unto Thee, and make from among our offspring a people resigned unto Thee, and show us our rites ( the ordinances of our worship, or our pilgrimage'), and bo pro¬ pitious towards us; for Thou art the Vei’v Propitious, the Merciful. (They begged llim In be propitious to them, wit withstanding their honest //, from a motive of humility, and by way of instruction to their offspring.) O our Lord, also send unto them (that is, the people of the House) an apostle from among them (and God hath answered their prayer by sending Muham¬ mad), who shall recite unto them Thy signs (the Qur'an), and shall teach them the book (the Qur'an ), and the knowlege that it con- taineth, and shall purify them front- polytheism ; for Thou art the Mighty, the Wise. — And who will bo averse from the religion of Abraham but he who makoth his soul foolish, who is ignorant that it is God's creation, and that the worship of Him is incumbent on it; or who lightly esteemeth it and applieth it to rile purposes ; when We havo chosen him in this world as an apostle and a friend, and he shall be in the world to come one of the righteous for whom are high ranks? — And remember when his Lord said unto him, Resign thyself: — he replied, I resign myself unto the Lord of the worlds. — And Abraham commanded Lis chil¬ dren to follow it (namely, the religion) ; and Jacob, his children ; saying, O my children, verily God hath, chosen for you the religion of al- Islam ; therefore die not without your being Muslims. — It was a prohibition from abandoning Islam and a command to persevere therein unto death." (Surah ii. 121-120.) “ When the Jews said, Abraham was a Jew, and wt are of his religion, — and the Christians said the like, [the following] was revealed: — O people of the Scripture, wherefore do ye argue respecting Abraham, asserting that he was of your religion, when the Pentateuch and tho Gospel were not sent down but after him a long time? Do ye not then understand the falsity of your saying? So ye, 0 people, have argued respecting that of which ye have knowledge, concerning Moses and Jesus, and have asserted that, ye are of their religion : then wherefore do ye argue respecting that of which ye have no knowledge, concerning Abraham? But God knoweth his case, and ye know it not. Abraham was not a JewT nor a Christian : but he was orthodox, a Muslim [or one resigned], a Unitarian, and he was not of the polytheists.” (Surah iii. 58-60.) ABSCONDING OF SLAVES. Aral lie Ibdq (jh\). An absconded male or female slave is called Abiq, but an infant slave who leaves his home is termed zdll, a word which is also used for an adult slave who has strayed. The apprehension of a fugitive slave is a laudable act, and the person who seizes him should bring him be¬ fore the magistrate and receive a rewTard of forty dirhams. (Hamilton’s Iliddyah, vol. ii. p. 278.) ABSTINENCE. Arabic Taqwu Is very frequently enjoined in the Qur’an. Tho word generally applies to abstinence from idolatry in the first instance, but it is used to express a life of piety. An excessive abstinence and a life of asceticism are condemned in the Qur’an, and the Chris¬ tians are charged with the invention of the monastic life. (Surah lvii. 27.) “ As for the monastic life., they invented it themselves." [m< >n asticism, fasting.] ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH (*UU^ jjt). 'Muhammad ibn IsnnTIl al- Bukhari, the author of the well-known collection of traditions re¬ ceived by the Sunnis, [bukhari.] ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH AHMAD IBN HANBAL ^?\). [hanral.] ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH IBN ANAS (u~i\ (J.) edJU ^ \ ). [malik.] ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH MUHAM¬ MAD IBN AL-HASAN (^a,c ^ — asll 0.? a*^). Known as Imam Muhammad. Born at Wasit, a city in Arabian ‘Iraq, a.h. 132. He studied under the great Imam Abu Hanifah, and had also studied under Imam Malik for three years. He is cele¬ brated as one of the disciples of the Imam Abu Hanifah, from whom he occasionally differs, as is seen in the Iliddyah. He died at Rai, in Khurasan, where his tomb is still to be seen, a.h. 181). ABU BAKR (;So ^). Of the origin of his name, there are various explana¬ tions. Some think that it means “ the father of the maiden,” and that he received this title because he was the father of ‘Ayishah, whom Muhammad married when she was only nine years old. His original name was ‘Abdu ’1-Ka‘bah (which the Prophet changed into ‘Abdu llah) Ibn Abl Quhafah. He was the first Khallfah, or successor of Muhammad. [shi‘ah.] Muhammadan writers praise him for the purity of his life, and call him as- Siddiq, the Veracious. He only reigned two years, #nd died August 22nd, a.d. 634. ABU DA UD (*>^<3 Sulaiman Ibn al-Ash’as al-Sijistanl ; born at al-Basrah a.h. 2 02, and died A.n. 275. The compiler of one of the six correct books of Sunni tradi¬ tions, called the Sunnan Abi Hd'ud, which con¬ tains 4,008 traditions, said to have been care¬ fully collated from 500,000. [traditions.] ABU HANIFAH ^) Abu Hanifah an-Nu‘man is the great Sunni Imam and jurisconsult, and the founder of 8 ABU HURAIRAH the Hanifi gect. His father, Sabit, was a silk dealer in the city of al-Kufah, and it is said his grandfather, Zufca, was a native of Kabul. He was born at al-Kufah, a.h. HO (a.d. 700), and died at Baghdad, a.u. 150. He is regarded as the great oracle of Sunni juris¬ prudence, and his doctrines, with those of his disciples, the Imam Abu Yusuf and the Imam Muhammad, are generally received through¬ out Turkey, Tartary, and Hindustan. It is related that Imam Malik said that the Imam Abu Hanifah was such a logician that, if he were to assert a wooden pillar was made of gold, he would prove it by argument. ABC HURAIRAH y\). One of the most constant attendants of Muham¬ mad, who from his peculiar intimacy has related more traditions of the sayings and doings of the Prophet than any other indi¬ vidual. His real name is doubtful, but he was nicknamed Abu Hurairah on account of his fondness for a kitten. Ho embraced Islam in the year of the expedition to Khaibar, a.h. 7, and died in al-Madinah, a.ii. 57 or 59, aged 78. ABC JAHL (J*. y\). An im- placable adversary of Muhammad. His real name was ‘Amr ibn Hisham, but he was sur- named, by the Muslims, Abu Jahl, or the “ Father of Folly.” He is supposed to be alluded to in the Qur’an, Surah xxii. 8 : — “ There is a man who disputeth concerning God without either knowledge or direction.” He was a boastful and debauched man, and was killed in the battle of Badr. ABC LAHAB (W y\). One of the sons of Abu Muttalib, and an uncle to Muhammad. He was a most bitter enemy to the Prophet, and opposed the establishment of Islam to the utmost of his power. His name was ‘Abdu ’1- Uzza, but he was surnamed by Muhammad, Abu Lahab, “The Father of the Flame.” When Muhammad received the command to admonish his relations, he called them all together, and told them he was a warner sent unto them before a grievous chastisement. Abu Lahab rejected his mis¬ sion, and cried out, “ Mayest thou perish ! Hast thou called us together for this ? ’ and took up a stone to cast at him ; whereupon the cxith Surah of the Qur'an was produced : — “ Let the hands of Abu Lahab perish, and let himself perish ! His wealth and his gains shall avail him naught. Burned shall he be at a fiery flame. And his wife laden with fire wood. On her neck a ropo of palm fibre.” Abu Lahab is said to have died of grief and vexation at the defeat which his friends had received at the battlo of Badr, surviving that misfortune only seven days. His body was left unburied for several days. Zaid and Abu Lahab are the only relatives or friends of Muhammad mentioned by name in the Qur’an *AD ABC ’L-HUZAIL ZUFAR IBN AL-HUZAIL (J>iaB ^ jtl). Celebrated as the Imam Zufar, and as a con¬ temporary and intimate friend of the great Imam Abu Hanifah. He died at al- Basrah. a.h. 158. ABC ’L-QASIM yl). “ The father of Qiisim.” One of the names of Mu¬ hammad, assumed on the birth of his son Qasim, who died in infancy, [muhammaiu] ABUSIVE LANGUAGE is for¬ bidden by the Muslim law, and the offender must bo punished according to the discretion of the Qazi. Abu Hanifah says : “ If a person abuse a Musalman by calling him an ass or a hog, punishment is not incurred, because these expressions aro in no respect defama¬ tory of the person to whom they are used, it being evident that he is neither an ass nor a hog. But some allege that in our times chastisement is inflicted, since, in the modern acceptation, calling a man an ass or a hog is held to be abuse. Others, again, allege that it is esteemed only to be abuse when the person of whom it is said occupies a dignified position.” According to Abu Hanifah, the greatest number of stripes that can be inflicted for abusive language is thirty-nine. (Hamilton’s 1 Iiddyah, vol. ii. 78.) Muhammad is related to have said, “ Abusing a Muslim is disobedience to God. and it is infidelity for anyone to join $ueh an one in religious warfare.” ( Mishkat , xxii. 2.) ABC TALIB ,.1). Muham- mad’s uncle and guardian ; the father of ‘All. He is believed to have died as he had lived, an unbeliever in the Prophet’s mission : but for forty years he had been his faithful friend and guardian. He died in the third year before the Hijrah. ABU ‘UBAIDAH #\) IBN AL-JARRAH One of the Companions, who was with the Prophet in all his wars, and distinguished himself at the battle of Uhud. He was highly esteemed by Muhammad. whe made him one of the • Asharah al-Mubash- sharah, or ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith. He died a.h. 18, aged 58. ABU YUSUF yd). Knowu also as Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim Born at Bagh¬ dad, a.h. 113. Studied under the Imam Abu Hanifah, and is celebrated, together with the Imam Muhammad and the Imam Zufar, as disciples of the great Imam ; from whose opinions, however, the three disciples not un- frequently differ, as will be seen upon refer¬ ence to the //i da yak. He died a.h. 182. ‘AD (oU ) . A tribe located to the south of Arabia, to which the prophet Hud is said to have been sent. See Qur un, vii. 03 “ And to ‘Ad we sent our brother Hud, ‘ 0 my people,’ said he, ‘ worship God : ye have no other god than Him : NN ill ye not then fear Him ? ’ “ Said the unbelieving chiefs among his ADA ADAM 9 people, * We certainly perceive that thou art unsound of mind : and we surely deem thee an impostor.’ “ He said, ‘ 0 my people 1 it is not unsound¬ ness of mind in me, but I am an Apostle from the Lord of the Worlds. The messages of my Lord do I annouhce to you, and I am your faithful counsellor. Marvel ye that a warning hath come to you from your Lord through one of yourselves that He may warn you? Remember how he hath made you the successors of the people of Noah, and increased you in tallness of stature. Remember then the favours of God, that it may haply be well with you.' “ They said, ‘ Art thou’come to us in order that we may worship one God alone, and leave what our fathers worshipped? Then bring that upon us with which thou threat- enest us, if thou be a man of truth.’ “ He said, * Vengeance and wrath shall sud¬ denly ligtot on you from your Lord. Do ye dispute with me about names that you and your fathers have given your idols, and for which God hath sent you down no warranty ? Wait ye then, and I too will wait with you.' ‘ And we delivered him, and those who were on his side, by our mercy, and we cut off, to the last man, those who had treated our signs as lies, and who were not believers.” Also, Surah lxxxix. 5 : “ Hast thou not seen ho*w thy Lord dealt with ‘Ad at I ram, adorned with pillars, whose like have not been reared in thesp lands.” [hud, iram.] ADA’ Payment ; satisfac¬ tion ; completing (prayers, &c.). ADAM. Arabic, Adam (f^). The first man. Reckoned by Muslim writers as the first prophet, to whom ten portions of scrip¬ ture ( sahifah ) are said to have been revealed. He is distinguished by the title of Safiyu’llah, or, the “ chosen one of God.” He is mentioned in the Qur’an in the following Surahs, which are taken f^om Mr. Lane’s Selections (new edition, by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole ; Triibnor, 1879), with the commentary in italics : — “ Remember , 0 Muhammad, when thy Lord said unto the angels, I am about to piace in the earth a vicegerent to act for me in the execution oj my ordinances therein , namely , Adam, — they said, Wilt Thou place in it one who will corrupt in it by disobediences, and will shed blood (as did the sons of Kl-Jdnn , u'ho were in it ; where ore, when they acted corruptly, God sent to them the angels, who drove them away to the islands and the moun¬ tains'), when we [on the contrary] celebrate the divine perfection, occujiyinq ourselves with Thy praise, and extol Thy holiness ? There¬ fore we are more worthy of the viccgerency. — God replied, Verily I know that which ye know not, as to the affair of appointing Adam vicegerent , and that among his posterity will be the obedient and the rebellious, and the just will be manifest among them. And he' created Adam from the surface of the earth, takinq a handful of every colour that it comprised, which was kneaded with various waters ; and hr com¬ pletely formed it, and breathed into it the soul ; so it became an animated sentient being. And he taught Adam the names of all things, in¬ fusing the knowledge of them into his heart. Then He showed them (namely, the things ) to the angels, and said, Declare unto me the names of these things, if ye say truth in your assertion that I wilt not create any more know¬ ing than ye, and that ye are more worthy of the vicegerency. They replied, [ We extof] Thy perfection ! We have no knowledge excepting what Thou hast taught us ; for Thou art the Knowing, the Wise. — God said, 0 Adam, tell them their names. And when he had told them their names, God said, Did I not say unto you that I know the secrets of the heavens and the earth, and know what ye reveal of your words, saying, Wilt thou place in it, etc., and what ye did conceal of your words, saying, He will not create any more generous towards Him than we, nor any more knowing ? ” (Surah ii. 28-31.) “ We created you : that is, your father Adam : then We formed you; we formed him, and you in him : then We said unto the angels, Pro¬ strate yourselves unto Adam, by way of salu¬ tation ; whereupon they prostrated them¬ selves, except Iblees, the father of the jinn, who was amid the angels : he was not of those who prostrated themselves. God said, What hath hindered thee from prostrating thyself, when I commanded thee ? He answered, I am better than he : Thou hast created me ol fire, and Thou hast created him of earth. [God] said, Then descend thou from it ; that is, from Paradise ; or, as some say, from the heavens; for it is not fit for thee that thou behave thyself proudly therein : so go thou forth : verily thou shalt be of the contempt¬ ible. He replied, Grant me respite until the day when they (that is, mankind) shall be raised from the dead. He said, Thou shalt be of those [who are] respited : and, in another verse [ill xv. 38, it is said], until the day of the known period’, that is, until the period of the first blast [of the trumpet], [And the devil] said, Now, as Thou hast led me into error, I will surely lay wait for them (that is, for the sons of A dam) in Thy right way, the way that leadeth to Thee : then I will surely come upon them, from before them, and from behind them, and from their right hands, and from their left, and hinder them from pursuing the way (but, saith Jbn ‘Abbas, he cannot come upon them above, lest he should intervene be¬ tween the servant and God's mercy), and Thou shalt not find the great number of them grateful, or believing. [God] said, Go forth from it, despised and driven away from mercy. Whosoever of them (that is, of man¬ kind) shall follow thee, I will surely fill hell with you all ; with thee, and thy off- spnng, and with men.” (Surah vii. 10-17.) “ A^d we said, 0 Adam, dwell thou and thy wife (Howwa [or Eve], whom God created from a rib of his left side) in the garden, and eat ye therefrom plentifully, wherever ye will ; but approach ye not this tree, to eat thereof ; (and it was wheat, or the grape-vine , or some other tree;) for if ye do so,' ye will be 2 10 ADAB ADORATION of the number of the offenders. But the devil, Iblees, caused them to slip from it, that is from the garden, by his saying unto them, Shall I show you the way to the tree of eternity ? And he sware to them by God that he teas one of the faithful advisers to them ; so they ate of it, and Ho ejected them from from that state of delight in which they were. And We said, Descend ye to the earth, ye two with the offspring that ye congwise [yet unborn] , one of you ( that is, of your offspring ) an enemy to another; and there shall be for you, in the earth, a place of abode, and a provision, of its vegetable produce , for a time, until the period of the expiration of your terms of life. And Adam learned, from his Lord, words. which ivere these: — 0 Lord . we have acted unjustly to our own souls, and if Thou do not forgive us, and be merciful unto us, we shall surely be of those who suffer loss. And he prayed in these words ; and Ho became pro¬ pitious towards him, accepting his repentance ; for He is the Very Propitious, the Merciful. We said, Descend ye from it (from the garden) altogether; and if there come unto you from Me a direction (a book and an apostle), those who follow my direction, there shall come no fear on them, nor shall they grieve in the world to come ; for they shall enter paradise : but they who disbelieve and accuse our signs of falsehood, these shall be the companions of the fire : they shall remain therein for ever.” (Surah ii. 33-37.) The Muhammadans say, that when they were cast down from Paradise [which is in the seventh heaven], Adam fell on the isle of Ceylon, or Sarandib, and Eve near Jiddali (the port of Makkah) in Arabia ; and that, after a separation of two hundred years, Adam was, on his repentance, conducted by the angel Gabriel to a mountain near Mak¬ kah, where he found and knew his wife, the mountain being then named ‘Arafat ; and that ho afterwards retired with her to Ceylon. — Sale. ADAB (v>^). Discipline of the mind and manners ; good education and good breeding ; politeness ; deportment ; a mode of conduct or behaviour. A very long section of the Traditions is devoted to the sayings of Muhammad regarding rules of conduct, and is found in the Mishkatu ’l-Masdbih under the title Baba '/-Adab (book xxii. Matthew’s Mishkat). It includes — (1) Salutations, (2) Asking permission to enter houses, (3) Shak¬ ing hands and embracing, (4) Rising up, (5) Sitting, sleeping and walking, (fi) Sneezing and yawning, (7) Laughing, (8) Names, (0) Poetry and eloquence, (10) Backbiting and abuse, (11) Promises, (12) Joking, (13) Boast¬ ing and party spirit. The traditional sayings on these subjects will be found under their respective titles, ‘//mu 'l- Adab is the science of Philology. ‘ADIYAT («^hj\x). “Swift horses.” The title of the 100th Surah of the Qur’an, the second verse of which is, “ By the swift chargers and those who strike fire with their hoofs.” Professor Palmer translates it “ snorting chargers.” AD'IYATU ’L-MASCTRAH “The prayers handed down by tradition." Those prayers which were •said by Muhammad, in addition to the regular liturgical prayers. They are found in ditfe- rent sections of the traditions or Ahudif. ‘ADL (Jac). J istioe. Appointing what is just; equalising; making of the same weight. Ransom. The word occurs twelve times in the Qur’an, e.g., Surah iv. 128, •• Ye are not able, it may be, to act equitabh / to your wives, even though ye covet it. Surah ii. 44, •• Fear the day wherein no soul shall pay any ransom for another soul.” Surah ii. 123, •• And fear the day when no soul shall pay any ransom for a soul, nor shall an equi¬ valent be received therefrom, nor any inter¬ cession avail : and they shall not be helped.” Surah ii. 282, *• Write it down faithfully . . . then let his agent dictate faithfully." Surah v. 105, •* Let there be a testimony between you when any one of you is at the point of death — at the time he makes his will — two equitable persons from amongst you." Surah vi. G9, “And though it (soul) compensate with the fullest compensation it would not be accepted.” Surah v. 115, “The words of thy Lord are fulfilled in truth and justice .” Surah xvi., 78, “ Is he to be held equal with him who bids what is just, and who is on the right way?” Surah xvi. 92, “ Verily God bids you do justice.” Surah xlix. 8. •• Make peace with them with equity and be gust." Surah lxxxii. 8, “ Thy generous Lord, who created thee and moulded thee and disposed thee aright." al-‘ADL One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It signi¬ fies “tho Just.” It does not occur in the Qur’an as attribute of tho Divine Being, but it is in the list of attributes given in the Traditions. ( Mishkat , book x.) ‘ADN The garden of Eden. Jannatu lAdn. The garden of perpetual abode. The term is used both for the garden of Eden, in which our first parents dwelt, and also for a placo in celestial bliss. [jaX- NATU ‘ADN.] ADOPTION. Arabic Tabanni (,^-J). An adopted son, or daughter, of known descent, has no right to inherit from his. or her, adoptive parents and their relatives,— the filiation of this description being neither recommended nor recogn.sed bv Muhammadan law. Such son or daughter is, however, entitled to what may be given under a valid deed in gift or will. In this particular the Muhammadan agrees with the English, and the Hindu with the Roman law. ( Tagore Law fjectures, 1873, p. 124.) ADORATION. The acts and postures by which tho Muslims express adoration at the time of prayer are similar to those used by the ancient Jews (vide Smith s Dictionary of the Bible, in loco), and consist of DULTERY 11 ‘AFU RuJcfc , or the inclination of the body, the hands being placed on the knees ; and Sujud, or prostration upon the earth, the forehead touching the ground, [prayer.] The adora¬ tion of the black stone at Makkali forms an important feature in the ceremonies of the pilgrimage, [iiajj.] ADULTERY. Arabic zino' (A»j). The term zinff includes both adultery and fornication, but there is a difference in the punishment for these offences, [fornication.] Adultery is established before a Qazi, either by proof or confession. To establish it upon proof, four witnesses are required. (Qur’an, Surah iv. 1.) When witnesses come forward, it is necessary that they should be examined particularly concerning the nature of the offence. When the witnesses shall have borne testimony completely, declaring that they have seen the parties in the very act of carnal conjunction,” the Qazi passes sentence. A confession of adultery must be made by the person who has committed the sin. at four different times, although, according to the Imam ash-ShafH. one confession is sutlicicnt. Some of the doctors hold that if a person retract his confession, his retraction must be credited, and he must be forthwith released. At the commencement of Muhammad's mis¬ sion, women found guilty of adultery and for¬ nication were punished by lining literally immured — JSuratu'n-nisd (iv.) 19.” Shut them up within their houses till death release them, or God make some way for them.” This, however, was cancelled, and lapidation was substituted as the punishment for adul¬ tery, and 100 stripes and one year’s banish¬ ment for fornication. W hen an adulterer is to be stoned to death, he should be carried to some barren place, and the lapidation should bo executed, first by the witnesses, then by the Qazi, and after¬ wards by the by-standers. When a woman is stoned, a hole or excavation should be dug to receive her, as deep as her waist, because Muhammad ordered such a hole to be dug for Ghandia. It is lawful for a husband to slay his wife and her paramour, if he shall find them in thc^ very act. If a supremo ruler, such as a Khalifah, commit adultery, he is not subject to such punishment. 1 he state of marriage which subjects a whoremonger to lapidation, requires that he 1,0 ./ rec (t-v- not a slave), a Muslim, and one who has consummated a lawful marriage. It will be seen that Muhammadan law is almost identical with the divine law of the Jews with regard to adultery (Deut. xxiii. 22, Lev. xix. 20); but the Mosaic penalty applied as well to the betrothed as to the married woman. At1 1* INITY. Arabic Qarabnh (A>bi). The prohibited dogrees ( [hurmah ) with regard to marringes are as foll-ws Mother, daughter, paternal aunt, maternal aunt, bro¬ thers or sisters daughter, grandmother, granddaughter, mother-in-law, step-mother, daughter-in-law, granddaughter-in-law. Nor can any man marry any who stand in any of these relationships from fosterage. The mar¬ riage of two sisters at the same time is for¬ bidden, but the marriage of a deceased wife’s sister is allowed. Marriage with a deceased brother’s wife is very common in Muslim countries, such marriages being held to be a very honourable means of providing for a brother’s widow. The marriage of cousins is also considered most desirable, as being the means of keeping families and tribes together. The passage of the Qur’an on the subject of affinity, is as follows (Surah v. 27) : — “ Marry not women whom vour fathers have married : for this is a shame, and hate¬ ful, and an evil wav: — though what is past (i.e. in times of ignorance) may be allowed. “ Forbidden to you are your mothers, and your daughters, and your sisters, and your aunts, both on the father and mother’s side, and your nieces on the brother and sister's side, and your foster-mothers, and your foster-sisters, and the mothers of your wives, and your step-daughters who are your wards, born of your wives to whom ye have gone in : (but if ye have not gone in unto them, it shall be no sin in you to marry them :) and the wives of your sons who pro¬ ceed out of your loins ; and ye may not have two sisters ; except where it is already done. Verily, God is Indulgent, Merciful ! Forbidden to you also are married women, except those who are in your hands as slaves: This is the law of God for you. And it is allowed you, beside this, to seek out wives by means of your ealth, with wmodest conduct, and without fornication. And give those with whom ye have cohabited their dowry. This is the law. But it shall be no crime in you to make agreements over and above the law. Verily, God is Knowing, Wise ! ” AFFLICTION. Arabic huztt (c)jr*), gJiamm ) . The benefits of affliction are frequently expressed in both the Quran and Traditions. For example: Surah ii. 150, Y’c "ill try you with something of fear, and hunger, and loss of wealth, and souls and fruit ; but give good tidings to the patient who, when there falls on them a calamity, say, ‘ "Verily we are God's and verily to Him we return.’" This formula is always used by Muhammadans in any danger or sudden cala¬ mity. especially in the presence of death. In the traditions (see Alishkatu V- MasdbVi ), Muhammad is related to have said, “ A Muslim is like unto standing green corn, which sometimes stands erect, but is some¬ times cast down by the wind.” “ No affliction befals a servant of God but on account of the sins which he commits.” AI SUN ( (jy — *1). The Persian term for Da* wall or exorcism, [exorcism.] ‘AFU (y*). “ erasing, cancel¬ ling. The word is generally used in Muham¬ madan books for pardon and forgiveness! It 12 AGENT AL occurs eight times in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah ii. 286, “ Lord, make us not to carry what we have not strength for, but forgive us and par¬ don us and have mercy on us.” Surah iv. 46, “ Verily God pardons and forgives.” AI-'Afu is one of the ninety-nine special names of God. It means “ one who erases or cancels;” “ The Eraser (of sins).” See Qur’an, Surah iv. 51. AGENT. Arabic t vakil (Jcfj). One legally appointed to act for another. For the Muhammadan law regarding the appointment of agents to transact business, or to negotiate marriages, see Hamilton’s Hiddyah , vol. iii. p. 1 ; Baillie’s Digest. Hanifi Code , p. 75 ; Imdmiyah Code , p. 29. The author of the Iliduyah says, “ It is lawful for a person to appoint another his agent for the settlement, in his behalf, of every contract which he might lawfully have concluded himself, such as sale, marriage, and so forth ; ” and he then proceeds to lay down rules for guidance in such matters at great length. A woman who remains in privacy and is not accustomed to go into Court, ought, according to the saying of Abu Bakr, to appoint an agent and not appear herself. A slave or a minor may be appointed agent for a free man. al-AHAD (j^«) “ The One.” A title given to God. [names of god.] AHADIYAH Unity, con- cord. Al-Ahadiyah is a term used by Sufi mystics to express a condition of the mind, completely absorbed in a meditation on the Divine Unity. (See ‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dic¬ tionary of the Technical Terms of the Sufis. Sprenger’s edition.) AHQAF The name of a tract of land in Sihr in Yaman. The title of the XLVith Surah of the Qur’an. AHLU ’L-BAIT J*\). “ The people of the house.” A term used in the Qur’an (Surah xxxiii. 33), and in the Hadis ( Miskkdt , xxiv. 21), for Muhammad’s house¬ hold. AHLU ’L-HAWA’ (.VM >')• A visionary person ; a libertine. AHLU ’L-KITAB (sAsfll Lit. “ The people of the book.” A term used in the Qur’an for Jews and Christians, as be¬ lievers in a revealed religion. Some sects of the Shi‘ahs include the Majusi (Magi) under this term. AHMAD (ou*A). The name under which Muhammad professes that Jesus Christ foretold his coming. Vide Qur'an, Surah lxi. 6, “ And remember when Jesus the son of Mary said, 1 0 children of Israel ! of a truth I am God’s Apostle to you to confirm the law which was given before me, and to announce an apostle that shall come after mo, whose name shall be Ahmad.”' Muhammad had, no doubt, heard that Our Lord hud promised a Paracletos (TrapaKXrjro^'), John xvi. 7. This title, understood by him, probably from the similarity of sound, as equivalent to Periclytos ( TT€piK\vros), he applied to himself with reference to lii.s own name Muhammad, the praised or glorifed one. Muir thinks that in some imperfect Arabic translation of tho Gospel of St. John, the word TrapaKXrpro^ may have been translated Ahnutd, or praised. (Life of Mahomet, vol. i. 17.) AHZAB (wdy=d). “Confederates.”' The title of the xxxnml Surah of the Qur'an, which is said to have been written when nl-Madinah was besieged by a confederation of the Jewish tribes with the Arabs of Makkah. a. ii. 5. AIYUB (v*\). [job.] AJAL (J=A). The appointed time of death, said to be ordained by God from the first. Qur’an, Surah xxxv. 44, *• He respites them until the appointed time. When their appointed ti no comes, verily God looks upon His servants." [death.] AJlR (^-\). A term used in Mu¬ hammadan law for a person hired for service. [iJARAll.] AJNABl (,^--^1). A foreigner; any person not of Arabia. AKHIR-I-CHAHAR-I-SHAMBAH (&~jju /M)* The last Wednesday of the month of Safar. It is observed as r feast in commemoration of Muhammad’;* having experienced some mitigation of his last illness, and having bathed. It was the last time he performed the legal bathing, for he died on the twelfth day of the next I month. In some parts of Islam it is cus¬ tomary, in tho early morning of this day to write verses of the Qur'an, known as the Seven Sa/ams (q.v.), and then wash off the ink and drink it as a charm against ovil. It is not observed by the Wahhabis, nor is its ob¬ servance universal in Islam. AKHLAQ (jV\). The plural of Khulq. Natures, dispositions, habits, manners. The general term for books on morality, e.g. Ah'hldq-i-Jaldli , Akhlaq-i- M uhsini, the 1 name of a dissertation on Ethics by Husain Waiz Kashifi, a.h. 910, which has been trans¬ lated into English by the Rev. H. G. Keene (W. H. Allen & Co.). * AKHUND (jJ^A). A maulawi ; a teacher. A title of respect given to eminent religious teachers. One of the most cele¬ brated Muhammadan teachers of modem times was the “ Akhund of Swut, who died a.d. 1875. This great religious leader resided in the village of Saidu, in the district of Swat, on the north-west frontier of India. AKHUNDZADAH (aApxi^A). The son of an Akhund. A title of respect given to the sons or descendants of celebrated reli¬ gious teachers, [akhund.] AL (Jf). Lit. “offspring, or pos¬ terity.” Used in Muslim works for the off¬ spring’ of Muhammad AL-A*LA al-A‘LA “ The Most High.” The title of the Lxxxvnth Surah of the Quran, in the second verse of which the word occurs : “ The name of th}r Lord the Most High is celebrated.” ‘ALAM (^). A standard or ensign. A term used for the flags and stan¬ dards paraded during the Muharrum. [mu- IIARRAM, STANDARDS.] ‘ALAM (^Vc). The universe ; world ; condition, state of being. ‘ Alamu ’ l-arwah . The world of spirits. ‘ Alamu 'l-khalq . The world ; this life. i Alamu ’ l-baqi . The future state. ‘ Alamu H-a'zamah . The highest heaven. ‘ Alamu ’ sh-shahadah The visible world. ‘ Alamu ’ l-ghaib . The invisible world. 1 Alamu '1-ma‘qul . The rational world. The foui’ mystic stages of the Sufis are — ‘ Alamu ’ n-nasut . The present world. ‘ . I lamu ’ 1-malakut . The state of angels. ‘ Alamu 't-jabarut . The state of power. 1 Alamu ’ l-lahut . The state of absorption into the Divinity. [sufiism.] ‘ALAM AT The greater signs of the resurrection. [‘alamatu "s- SA‘ AH, RESURRECTION.] ‘ALAMATU ’N-NUBU W A H “ The signs of Pro¬ phecy.” A term used for the supposed mi¬ racles and other proofs of the mission of Muhammad. The title of a chapter in the Traditions. ( Mishkat , xxi. c. vi.) ‘ALAMATU ’S-SA‘AH (JlcUJI). “ The signs of the hour,” i.e. the signs of the time of the Resurrection and of the Day of Judgment. The title of a section of the Traditions. ( Mishkat , xxiii. c. 3.) [resurrection.] ‘ALAQ “Congealed blood.” The title of the xcvith Surah, the first five verses of which are generally allowed to be the earliest portion of the Qur’an. al-BALDAH (LxLb;. “The City.” A name sometimes used in the I.Iadis for Makkah. ALCHEMY. Arabic Kimiycl (»W***). According to the Kaehfu ' z-zuniin , in loco, learned Muslims are not agreed as to the existence of this occult science, nor are they of one. opinion as to its lawfulness, even if it should exist. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Mentioned in the Qur’an as Zu ’ 1-Q.amain , i.e. “ He of the two horns,” with which he is represented on his coins. (Surah xviii. 82.) He seems to have been regarded by Muham¬ mad aB one invested with a divine commis¬ sion: — “Verily we established his power upon earth ” ; but commentators are not agreed whether to assign to him the position of a Prophet, [zu ’l-qarnain.] ‘ALIM 13 al-HAMD HI). “Praise.” A title given to the first Surah, so called because its first word is Al-hamd. This chapter is also called Fatihah, which term is used by modern Muslims for the Surah when it is said for the benefit of the dead, Al-hamd being its. more usual title, [fatihah.] al-HAMDU-LI’LLAH (as A«ll). “Praise belongs to God.” An ejaculation which is called Tahmid, and which occurs at the com¬ mencement of the first chapter of the Qur an. It is used as an ejaculation of thanksgiving — “ Thank God ! ” It is very often recited with the addition of Iiabbi 'l-^alamin, “ Lord of the Universe.” [taiimid.] al-‘ALI (J^)- One of tbe ninety-nine special names of God. It means “ The Exalted One.” ‘ALl The son of Abu- Talib, and a cousin-german to Muhammad, who adopted him as his son. He married Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, and had by her three sons, Hasan, Husain, and Muhassin. He was the fourth Khalifah, and reigned from a.h. 35 to a.h. 40. He was struck with a poisoned sword by Ibn Muljam, at al-Kufah, and died after three days, aged fifty-nine years. The Shkahs hold that, on the death of Muhammad, ‘All was entitled to the Khalifate, and the respective claims of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Usman on the one hand, and of ‘All on the other, gave rise to the Slii-ah schism. ‘All is surnamed by the Arabs Asadu 'll ah, and by the Persians Sher-i- Khudd, i.e. “ The Lion of God.” [shi‘ah.] AL1F. The letter Alif (\) is a monogram frequently placed at the head of letters, prescriptions, &c. It is the initial letter of the word Allah (ill\), “ God.” ALIF LAM MlM. The Arabic letters corresponding to A L M, which occur at the commencement of six Surahs, namely Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), Suratu Ali ‘Imran (hi.), Suratu ’l-‘Ankabut (xxix.), Suratu ’r-Rum(xxx.), Suratu Luqman (xxxi.), and Suratu ’s-Sijdali (xxxn.). Muhammad never explained the meaning of these myste¬ rious letters, and consequently they are a fruitful source of perplexity to learned com¬ mentators. Jalalu ’d-din gives an exhaustive summary of the different views in his Itqan (p. 470). Some suppose they stand for the words Allah, “God”; Latif, “gracious”; Majid, “ glorious.” Others say they stand for Ana’lldhuadamud'l am the God who knoweth.” Others maintain that they were not meant to be understood, and that they were inserted by the Divine command without explanation, in order to remind the reader that there were mysteries which his intellect would never fathom. ALU ‘IMRAN (eV* J^). “ Tbe family of ‘Imran.” The title of the third chapter of the Qur’an. ‘ALIM pi. 'ulama . A learned AMULETS 14 AL-‘ALIM man. The term usually includes all roligious teachers, such as Imams, Muftis, Qazis, and Maulawles ; and in Turkey it denotes the poli¬ tical party led by the roligious teachers. al-‘ALIM (^'*11). One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It fre¬ quently occurs in the Qur’an, and means •• The Wise One.” ALLAH (<^). [god.] ALLAHU AKBAR *1)1). God is great,” or “ God is most great.” An ejaculation which is called the Takhir. It occurs frequently in the liturgical forms, and is used when slaying an animal for food. [TAKHIR.] ALMSGIVING. The word gene¬ rally used for alms is »Sr uhnjah, or that which manifests righteousness ; the word zukat , or purification, being specially restricted to the legal alms, [zakat.] iyuluqdtu ’ l-Fitr are the offerings given on the Lesser Festival. The duty of almsgiving is very frequently en¬ joined in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 274 -o, •• What ye expend of good (i.e. of well- gotten wealth), it shall be paid to you again, and ye shall not bo wronged. (Give your alms) unto the poor who are straitened in God’s way and cannot traverse the earth. . Those who expend their wealth by night and by day, secretly and openly, they shall have their hire with their Lord.” The following are some of the sayings of Muhammad on the subject of almsgiving, as they occur in the Traditions : — “ The upper hand is better than the lower one. The upper hand is the giver of alms, and the lower hand is the poor beggar.” “ The best of alms are those given by a man of small means, who gives of that which he has earned by labour, and gives as much as ho is able.” “ Begin by giving alms to your own relatives.” “ Doing justice between two people is alms; assisting a man on his beast is alms ; good words are alms.” “A camel lent out for milk is alms : a cup of milk every morning and evening is alms.” ••Your smiling in your brother’s face is alms ; assisting the blind is alms.” “ God savs, Be thou liberal, thou child of Adam, that I may be liberal to thee.” (See Mishkat , Matthew’s edition, vol. i. p. 420.) -ALWAH (cV')» P1- of Lau't- “ Tbe tables” (of the Law). Mentioned in the Quran, Surah vii. 142, “We wrote for him (Moses) upon the Tables ( al-A/icdh ) a monition concerning every matter.” Muslim divines are not agreed as to the number either of the tables, or of the Com¬ mandments. The commentators Jalalnin say they were either seven or ten. [ten com¬ mandments.] ‘AMAL-NAMAH J**). Tho Persian word for Sahi/atu 'l-A'mal, or record of actions kept by tho recording angels. [SUIIFATC L-A’MAL. K 1 RAMU L-KATIUIN.] A MAN Protection given by a Muslim conqueror to those who pay Jizyah, or poll tax. [jihad.] AMB1YA 0W>'), pi. of Nabi. " Prophets." The title of the xxjst Surah. [prophets.] AMIN Hebrew An expression of assent used at the c6nclusion of prayers, very much as in our Christian wor¬ ship. It is always used at the conclusion of the Suratu ’1-Fatihah, or first chapter of the Quran. A in in," Faithful.” A l-A min is the title which it is said was given to Muhammad when a youth, on account of his fair and honour¬ able bearing, which won the confidence of the people. AminU 1 1- Bait, one who wishes to perform the pilgrimage to Makkah. AM IN AH (du*I). Muhammad’s mother. She was the wife of ‘Abdu ’llah, and the daughter of Wahb ibn ‘Abdi Manaf. She died and was buried at al-Abwa, a place midway between Makkah and al-Madinah, before her son claimed the position of a Pro¬ phet. AMlR (^M), Anglice , Emir. “A ruler ; a commander ; a chief ; a nobleman.” It includes the various high offices in a Muslim state; the Imam, or Khalifah, being styled A mini 7- Umara , tho ruler of rulers; and A mini ’ l-Alu'minin , the commander of tho believers. AMI RU ’L-HAJJ ^\). The chief of the pilgrimage.” The officer in charge of the pilgrims to Makkah. [hajj.] AMlRU ’L-MU’MINlN “The Commander of the Believers.” A title which was first given to Abdu ’llah ibn Jahsh after his expedition to Nakhlah, and which was afterwards assumed by the Khalifahs (first by ‘Umar) and tho Sultans of Turkey, [kiialifail] ‘AMR IBN AL-‘ASI One of tbe Companions, celebrated for his conquest of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, in the reigns of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar. He died (according to an-Nawawi) a.ii. 43. AMULETS. Arabic ffamd’il (JjU^.), “ anything suspended ” ; Ta'wiz, “ a refuge ”; Hijab , “ a cover.” Amulets, although of heathen origin, arc very common in Muhammadan countrie*. The following are used as amulets: (1) a small Qur’an, encased in silk or leather, and sus¬ pended from the shoulder: (2) a chapter or verse of the Quran, written on paper and folded in leather or velvet; (3) some of the names of God, or the numerical power (s*e abjad) of these names ; (4) the names of pro¬ phets, celebrated saints, or the numerical power of the same ; (5) the Muhammadan creed, ongraven on stone or silver. The chapters of the Qur’an generally selected for Amulets are : Surahs i., vi., xviii., xxxvi., xlir., !▼.. AMULETS ANGEL 15 lxvii., lxxviii. Five verses known as the Ayatu ’ l-Hifz , or “ verses of protection,” are also frequently inscribed on Amulets. Ihey are Surahs ii. 256 ; xii. 64 ; xiil 12 ; xv. 17 : xxxvii. 7. [ayatu ’l-hifz.] These charms are fastened on the arm or leg, or suspended round the neck, as a pro¬ tection against evil. They are also put on houses and animals, and, in fact, upon any¬ thing from which evil is to be averted. Strictly, according to the principles of Islam, only the names of God, or verses from the Qur’an, should be used for amulets. Informa¬ tion regarding the formation of magic squares and amulets will be found in the article on Exorcism, [exorcism, da'wah.] h t £ t S-5 \ e b t h AN AMULET OF THE ATTRIBUTE OF GOD — HdJlZ , “ THE PROTECTOR.” smsm A SMALL QURAN SUSPENDED AS AN AMULET. al-AN‘AM (rU>M). “The Cattle.” The title of the vith Surah, in verse 137 of which some superstitious customs of the Meccans, as to certain cattle, are incidentally mentioned. ANANlYAH (*)> ‘ Arabistdn The peninsula bearing, amongst the Arabs, these names is i the country situated on the east of the Red | Sea, and extending as far as the Persian Gulf. The word probably signifies a “ barren place,” “ desert ” (Heb. V • ' t t - : Ptolemy divides Arabia into three parts, Arabia Petraea. Arabia Felix, and Arabia Deserta ; but Arabian geographers divide it into Tiharnah, af-Hijaz, an-Najd , af-'Aruz, and al-Yaman. The races which have peopled Arabia are divided into three sections, al-lArabu 'l-Bd'i- dah, al-'Arabu 'l-'Aribuh, and al-'Arabu 7- Mufttalribah. I. Al-'Arabu ’ l-Baidah , are the old “lost Arabs,” of whom tradition has preserved the names of several tribes, as well as some me¬ morable particulars regarding their extinction. This may well be called the fabulous period of Arabian history; but, as it has the sanction of the Qur’an, it would be sacrilege in a Muslim to doubt its authenticity. According to this account, the most_ famous of the extinct tribes were those of ‘Ad, Samud, Jadis, and Tasm, all descended in the third or fourth generation from Shem. ‘Ad, the father of his tribe, settled, according to tradition, in the Great Desert of al-Ahqaf soon after the con¬ fusion of toi gues. Shaddad his son succeeded him in the government, and greatly extended his dominions. He performed many fabulous explo'ts; among others, he erected a magnifi¬ cent city in the desert of ‘Adan, which had been begun by his father, and adorned it with a sumptuous palaee and delightful gardens, in imitation of the celestial paradise, in order to inspire his subjects with a superstitious veneration for him as a god. This superb structure was built with bricks of gold and silver alternately disposed. The roof was of gold, inlaid with precious stones and pearls. The trees and slirubs were of the same pre¬ cious materials. The fruits and flowers were rubies, and on the branches were perched birds of similar metals, the hollow parts of which were loaded with every species of the richest perfumes, so that every breeze that 1 lew came charged with fragrance from the bills of these golden images. To this para¬ dise he gave the name of Iram (see Qur’an. Surah Ixxxix. 0). On the completion of all this grandeur. Shaddad set out with a splendid retinue to admire its beauties. But heaven 17 would not suffer his pride and impiety to go unpunished ; for, when within a day’s journey of the *r...ce, they were all destroyed by a terrible noise from the clouds. As a monument of Divine justice, the city, we are assured, still stands in the desert, though invisible. Southev, in his Thafaba, has viewed this and many of the other fables and superstitions of the Arabs with the eye of a poet, a philo¬ sopher, and an antiquary. According to al- Tabari, this legendary palace was discovered in the time of Mivawiyah, the first Khalifah of Damascus, by a person in search of a stray camel. A fanciful tradition adds, that the Angel of death, on being asked whether, in the discharge of his duties, an instance had ever occurred in which he had felt some com¬ passion towards his wretched victims, ad¬ mitted that only twice had his sympathies been awakened — once towards a shipwrecked infant, which had been exposed on a solitary plank to struggle for existence "with the winds and waves, and which he spared; and the second .time in cutting off the unhappy Shad¬ dad at the moment when almost within view of the glorious fabric which he had erected at so much expense. No sooner had the angel spoken, than a voice from heaven was heard to declare that the helpless innocent on the plank was no other than Shaddad himself ; and that his punishment was a just retribution for his ingi’atitude to a merciful and kind Providence, which had not only saved his life, but raised him to unrivalled wealth and splendour. The whole fable seems to be a confused tradition of Belus and the ancient Babylon ; or, rather, as the name would import, of Benhadad, men¬ tioned in Scripture as one of the most famous of the Syrian kings, who. we are told, was worshipped by his subjects. Of the ‘Adites and their succeeding princes, nothing certain is known, except that they were dispersed or destroyed in the course of a few centuries by the sovereigns of al-Yaman. The tribe of Samud first settled in Arabia Felix, and on tneir expulsion they repaired to al-Hijr, on the confines of Syria. Like the ‘Adites, they are reported to have been of a most gigantic stature, the tallest being a hun¬ dred cubits high and the least sixty : and such was their muscular power, that, with a stamp of the foot in the driest soil, the}’ could plant themselves knee-deep in the earth. They dwelt, the Qur’an informs us. “ in the caves of the rocks, and cut the mountains into houses, which remain to this day.” In this tribe it is easy to discover the Thamudeni of Diodorus, Pliny, and Ptolemy. The tribes of Tasm and .Tadis settled be¬ tween Makkah and al-Madinali, and occupied the whole level country of al-Yaman. living promiscuously under the same government. Their history is buried in darkness ; and when the A rnhs wish to denote anything of dubious authority, they call it a fable of Tasm. The extinction of these tribes, accord¬ ing to the Qur’an, was miraculous, and a signal example of Divine vengeance. Th*» posterity of ‘Ad and Samud had abandoned 3 18 ARABIA ARABIA the worship of the true God, and lapsed into incorrigible idolatry. They had been chastised with a three years’ drought, but their hearts remained hardened. To the former was sent the Prophet Hud, to reclaim them and preach the unity of the Godhead. “0 my people!” exclaimed the prophet, ask pardon of vour Lord ; then turn unto Him with penitence, (and) He will send down the heavens upon yoq with copious rains, and with strength in addition to your strength will He increase you.” Few believed, and the overthrow of the idolaters was effected by a hot and suf¬ focating wind, that blew seven nights and eight days without intermission, accompanied with a terrible earthquake, by which their idols were broken to pieces, and their houses thrown to the ground. (See Qur’an, Surah vii. 03, xi. 58.) Luqmttn, who. according to some, was a famous king of the *Adites, and who lived to the ago of sevon eagles, escaped, with about sixty others, the common calamity. These few survivors gave rise to a tribe called the Latter ‘Ad ; but on account of their crimes they were transformed, as the Qur’an states, into asses or monkeys. Hud returned to Hazramaut, and was buried in the neigh¬ bourhood, where a small town. Qabr Hud. still bears his name. Among the Arabs, ‘Ad expresses the same remote age that Saturn or Ogvges did among the Greeks ; anything of extreme antiquity is said to be “as old as King ‘Ad.’’ The idolatrous tribe of Samud had the prophet Salih sent to them, whom D'Herbelot makes the son of Arpliaxad, while Bochart and Sale suppose him to be Peleg, the brother of Joktan. His preaching had little effect. The fate of the ‘Adites, instead of being a warning, only set them to dig caverns in the rocks, where they hoped to escape the vengeance of winds and tempests. Others demanded a sign from the prophet in token of his mission. As a condition of their belief, they challenged him to a trial of power, similar to wha‘ took place between Elijah and the priests of Baal, and promised to follow the deity that should gain the triumph. From a certain rock a camel big with young was to come forth in their presence. The idolaters were foiled ; for on Salih’s pointing to the spot, a she-camel was produced, with a young one ready weaned. This miracle wrought conviction in a few ; but the rest, far from believing, hamstrung the mother, killed her miraculous progeny, and divided the flesh among them. This act of impiety sealed their doom. “ And a violent tempest overtook the wicked, and they were found prostrate on their breasts in their abodes.” (Qur'an. Surah vii. 71. xi. 04.) The tribes of Jadis and Tasm owe their extinction to a different cause. A certain despot, a Tasmite, but sovereign of both tribes, had rendered himself detested by a voluptuous law claiming for himself a priority of right over all the brides of the Jadisites. This insult was not to be tolerated. A conspiracy was formed. The king and his chiefs were invited to an entertainment. The avengers had privately hidden their swords in the sand, and in the moment of mirth and fes¬ tivity they fell upon the tyrant and his retinue, and finally extirpated the greater part of his subjects. II. — The jture Arabs are those who claim to be descended from Joktan or Qahtan, whom the present Arabs regard as their principal founder. The members of this genuine stock are styled al-*Arabu 'l-*Aribah, the genuine Arabs. According to their genealogy of this patriarch, his descendants formed two distinct branches. Ya‘rub, one of his sons, founded the kingdom of al-Yaman, and Jurhum that of al-Hijaz. These two are the only sons spoken of by the Arabs. Their names do not occur in Scripture ; but it has been conjec¬ tured that they were the Jerah and Hadoram mentioned by Moses as among the thirteen planters of Arabia (Gen. x. 2(1). In the division of their nation into tribes the Arabs resemble the Jews. From an early era they have retained the distinction of sepa¬ rate and independent families. This partition was adverse to the consolidation of power or political influence, but it furnishes our chief guide into the dark abyss of their antiquities. The posterity of Y.vrub spread and multi¬ plied into innumerable clans. New accessions rendered now subdivisions necessary. In the genealogical tables of Sale, Gagnier, and Saiyid Ahmad Khan, are enumerated nearly three-score tribes of genuine Arabs, many of whom became celebrated long before the time of Muhammad, and some of them retain their names even at the present day. III. — The * Arabu ’ f-Musta'ribah , the mixed Arabs, claim to be descended from Ishmael and the daughter of al-Muzfiz, King of al-Hijaz. whom he took to wife, and was of the ninth generation from Jurhum, the founder of that kingdom. Of the Jurliumites, till the time of Ishmael. little is recorded, except the names of their princes or chiefs, and that they had possession of the territc y of al-Hijaz. But as Muhammad traces his descent to this alliance, the Arabs have been more than usually careful to preserve and adrm his genealogy. The want of a pure ancestry is, in their estimation, more than compensated bv the dignity of so sacred a connexion ; for they boast as much as the Jews of being reckoned the children of Abraham. This circumstance will account for the preference with which they uniformly regard this branch of their pedigree, and for the many romantic legends they have grafted upon it. It is not improbable that the old giants and idolaters suffered an imaginary extinction to make way for a more favoured race, and that Divine chastisements always overtook those who dared to invade theiv consecrated terri¬ tories. , The Scripture account of the expulsion anti destiny Qf this venerated progenitor of the Arabs is brief, but simple and affecting. Ishmael was the son of Abraham by Hagar, an Egvptian slave. When fourteen years of age he was supplanted in the hopes and affections of his father by the birth of Isaac, ARABIA ARABIA 19 through whom the promises were to descend. This event made it necessary to remove the unhappy female and her child, who were accordingly sent forth to seek their fortune in some of the surrounding unoccupied dis¬ tricts. A small supply of provisions, and a bottle of water on her shoulder, was all she carried from the tent of her master. Direct¬ ing her steps towards her native country, she wandered with the lad in the wilderness of Beer-sheba, which was destitute of springs. Here her stock failed, and it seemed impos¬ sible to avoid perishing by hunger or thirst. She resigned herself to her melancholy pro- j spects, but the feelings of the mother were more acute than the agonies of want and despair. Unable to witness her son’s death, she laid him under one of the shrubs, took an affecting leave of him, and retired to a distance. “ And she went, and sat her down over against him, a good way off, as it were a bow-shot ; for she said, Let me not see the death of the child. And she sat over against him. and lifted up her voice and wept.” (Gen. xxi. 1G.) At this moment an angel directed her to a well of water close at hand, — a discovery to which they owed the preservation of their lives. A pro¬ mise foimerly given was renewed, that shmael was to become a great nation — that he was to be a wild man — his hand against every man. and every man’s hand against him. The travellers continued them journey to the wilderness of Pa ran, and there took up their residence. In due time the lad grew to man¬ hood, and greatly distinguished himself as an archer, and his mother took him a wife out of her own land. Here the sacred narrative breaks off abruptly, the main object of Moses being to follow the history of Abraham’s descendants through the line of Isaac. The Arabs, in their version of Ishmael’s history, have mixed a great deal of romance with the narrative of Scripture. They assert that al-Hijaz was tH district where he settled, and that Makkah, then an arid wilderness, was the identical spot where his life was providentially saved, and where Hagar died and was buried. The well pointed out by the angel, they be¬ lieve to be the famous Zamzam, of which all pious Muslims drink to this day. They make no allusion to his alliance' with the Egyptian woman, by Avhom he had twelve sons (Gen. xxv. 12-18), the chiefs of as many nations, and the possessors of separate towns; but as polygamy was common in his age and country, it is not improbable he may have had mor3 wives than one. It was, say they, to commemorate the miraculous preservation of Ishmael that God commanded Abraham to build the Ka‘bah. and his son to furnish the necessary materials. Muhammadan writers give the following a< count of Ishmael and his descendants : _ Ishmael wa* constituted the prince and first bigh-priest of Makkah, and, during half a century he preached to the incredulous AraW At his death, which happened forty-eight years after that of Abraham, and in the 137th of his age, he was buried in the tomb of his mother Hagar. Between the erection of the Ka‘bali and the birth of their Prophet, the Arabs reckon about 2,740 years. Ishmael was succeeded in the regal and sacerdotal office by his eldest son Nebat, although the pedigree of Muhammad is traced from Kedar, a younger brother. But his family did not long enjoy tb»s double authority ; for, in pro¬ gress of time, the Jurhumites seized the go¬ vernment and the guardianship of the temple, which they maintained about 300 years. These last, again, having corrupted the true worship, were assailed, as a punishment of their crimes, first by the scimitars of the Ishmaelites, who drove them from Makkah, and then by divers maladies, by which the whole race finally perished. Before quitting Makkah, however, they committed every kind of sacrilege and indignity. They filled up the Zamzam well, after having thrown into it the treasures and sacred utensils of the temple, the black stone, the swords and cuirasses of Qala‘ah, the two golden gazelles presented by one of the kings of Arabia, the sacred image of the ram substituted for Isaac, and all the precious movables, forming at once the object and the workmanship of a superstitious devo¬ tion. For several centuries the posterity of Ishmael kept possession of the supreme dignity. The following is the list of chiefs who are said to have ruled the Hijaz, and to have been the lineal ancestors of Muhammad, as far as * Adnan : — a. d. 538 *Abdu 'llah, the father of Muhammad. 505 ‘ Abdu ’’l-Muttalib. 472 Hashim. 439 ‘Abd Manaf. 406 Qusaiy. 373 Kilab.' 340 Murrab. 307 Ka*ab. 274 Luwaiy. 241 Ghalib. 208 Fihr or Quraish. 175 Malik. 142 an-Nazr. 109 Kinanah. 76 Kliuzaimah. 43 Mudrikah. 10 al-Ya’s. b. c. 23 Muzar. 56 Niziir. 89 Ma‘add. 122 ‘Adnan. The period between Ishmael and ‘Adnan is variously estimated, some reckoning forty, others only seven, generations. The authority of Abu’l-Fida, who makes it ten, is that gene¬ rally followed by the Arabs, being founded on a tradition of one of Muhammad’s wives. Making every allowance, hoAvever, for patri¬ archal longevity, even forty generations are insufficient to extend over a space of nearly 2,500 years. From ‘Adnan to Muhammad the genealogy is considered certain, compre¬ hending twenty-one generations, and nearly 20 ARABIC I his Arabic Dictionary, and Palmer’s On* an.) AL-A*RAF ARABIC LEXICONS. The first Arabic lexicon is that which is generally ascribed to al-IOiain, and entitled Kitabu V •Ain. The following are the most celebrated Arabic dictionaries composed after the 'Ain. The Jamharak , by Ibn Duraid. died a.h. 321. The Tahzib, by al-Azhari, died a.h. 370. The Mu/tif, by the Sahib Ibn -Abbud, died a. ii. 385. The Mujmul , by Ibn Paris, died a.ii. 305. The Si hah , by al-Jauhari, died a.h. 308. The Jamii, by ul-Qazzuz. died a.h. 412. Tho Mu'ab, by Abu Ghfilib, died a.h 43b. The Muhkant, by Ibn Sidah, died a.h. 458. I' ho Asds, by az-Zamakhshari, died a.h. 538. Flic Mmjhrtb , by al-MutarrizI, died a.h. 010. Flic ‘ Ubab , by aa-Saghani, died a.h. (500. The fjisunu '/-'Arab, by Ibn Mukarram, died a.ii. 711. The Tahzibu ’ t-Tahzib , by Mahmud at- Tanukhj. died a.h. 723. Flic Mt s bah, by Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Faivuml, compiled a.h. 734. Fhe Mia/hnt 7 -La bib, by Ibn Hisham, died a.h. 701. The (oldiniu, by al-Fairuzabadi, died a.h. 810. The Sihiih (says Mr. Lane in his Preface to his Dictionary), is among the books of lexicology like the Sahib of A/ -Bukhari amongst the books of traditions; for tho point on which turns the title to reliance is not tho copiousness of the collection, but tho condi¬ tion of genuineness and correctness. Two well-known dictionaries, compiled in modern times in Hindustan, are the (fhiya^u 7- Lughfity by Maulawi Qhiyasu ’d-din of Ram- pur, and the Muntaha ’/-‘Arab, by *Abdu V- Rahim ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Karim of Saflpiir. These are both Arabic and Persian lexicons. Tho Arabic-Latin dictionary of Jacob Golius, was printed at Leyden, a.d. 1653 : that of Freytag at Hallo, a.d. l»30-35. Tho Arabic-English and English-Arabic dictionaries extant arc — Richardson’s Persian-Arabic-Englisu, a.d. 1777. Richardson’s English-Persian-Arabic, a.d. 1810. Francis Johnson’s Persian-Arabic-English, a.d. 1852. Catafago’s Arabic-English and English- Arabic, new edition. 1873. Lane’s Arabic-English. a.d. 1803 to 1882, imperfect. Dr. Badger's English-Arabic, a.d. 1881. Dr. Stcingass’s English-Arabic, a.d. 1882. al-A‘RAF (yyj'). (1) The partition between heaven and hell, described in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 44. “ Betwixt the two (heaven and hell) there is a partition ; unci on al-A‘raf are men who know all by their marks ; and they shall cry out to the inhabitants of Paradise. ‘Peace be upon you!’ (but) they have not (vet) entered it, although they ao desire. And when their sight is turned towards the dwellers in the Fire, they *uy, ‘ O our Lord. ARCHITECTURE 21 ‘arafah place us not with the unjust people.’ ” Accord¬ ing to Sale, nl-A'rdf is derived from the verb ‘ nrat'a , which signifies “ to distinguish between things, or to part them ” ; though some com¬ mentators give another reason for the imposi¬ tion of this name, because, say they, those who stand on this partition will knoio and distinguish the blessed from the damned by their respec¬ tive marks or characteristics : and others say the word properly intends anything that is cheated, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to be. Some imagine it to be a sort of limbo for the patriarchs and pro¬ phets, or for the. martyrs and those who have been most eminent for sanctity. Others place here those whose good and evil works are so equal that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve neither reward nor punishment ; and these, say they, will on the last day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have performed an act of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a merit, and will make the scale of their good works to preponderate. Others suppose this intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war, without their parents’ leave, and therein suffered mar¬ tyrdom ; being excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, and escaping hell because they are martyrs. (2) The title of Surah vii. (3) A term used by Sufi mystics to express a condition of the mind and soul when medi¬ tating on the existence of God in all things. ‘A.RAFAH (^^). The vigil of the ‘Idu 1-Azha, or Feast of Sacrifice, when the pilgrims proceed to Mount ‘Arafat, [‘idu ’l-azha.] ARAFAT or 1 Arafah The “ Mount of Recognition,” situated twelv miles from Makkah; the place where til pilgrims stay on the ninth day of the pil grimage, and recite the mid-dav and after noon prayers, and hear the Khutbah o sermon. Hence it is a name given to th ninth day of the month Zu ’1-Hijjali. Upoi the origin of the name given to this mountain Burton says, “ The Holy Hill owes its nami to the following legend : — When our firs parents forfeited heaven for eating wheat which deprived them of their primeval purity they were cast down upon earth. The ser pent descended upon Ispahan, the peacock a Cabul ; Satan at Bilbavs (others say Semniii or Seistan), Eve upon ‘Arafat, and^ Adam a Ceylon (Surandib). The latter, determinim to seek his wife, began a journey, to whicl the earth owes its present mottled appear ance. Wherever our first father placed hi foot, which was large, a town afterward] arose ; and between the strides will alwavi be country. Wandering for many years, in came to thq Mountain of Mercy/ where on: common mother was continually calling upoi uis name, and their recognition of each othei gave the place the name of ‘ Arafah” ARAZI (^\>\). Zil. “lands”; th< sa e of ands. Tombs are not included in th< sale of lands. A plnce or station for casting the harvest is not considered to be amongst the rights and advantages of land, and there¬ fore does not enter into the sale of it. (Baillie’s Law of Sale , pages 54, 55.) [land.] ARCHITECTURE. The term Sara¬ cenic is usually applied by English writers to Muhammadan architecture. But though the style may be traced to the Arabians, they cannot themselves be considered the inventors of it. They had, in fact, no distinctive style of their own when they made their rapid con¬ quests, but adapted existing styles of archi¬ tecture to meet the religious and national feelings of the Muslims. Muhammad built a mosque at al-Madinah, but it was an exceedingly simple structure, and he left no directions in the Qur'an or in the Traditions on the subject. The typical varieties of the earlier Muham¬ madan architecture are those which appeared in Spain and in Egypt ; its later form appeared in Constantinople. The oldest specimen of Saracenic architecture in Spain is the mosque of Cordova, which now serves as the cathedral of the city. It was commenced by the Khalifah ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman, 786 a.d.. IN TIIH SANCTUARY OF THE CATHKDRAL OF CORDOVA. with the avowed intention that it should be the finest mosque in the world, and Byzantine aichitects arc said to have been specially invited vo superintend its construction. The eailiest of the Muhammedan buildings in Egypt, of which any portions still remain, is the Mosque of ‘Amr at old Cairo, begun about a.d. 642, but greatly altered or rebuilt about sixty years later. On the capture of Constantinople, St. Sophia uas converted by the Muslim conquerors into their chief Mosque, and made their architec¬ tural model. The older Saracenic style, as seen at Cordova and old Cairo, continued to be the basis of the new, but it was modified throughout by Byzantine influence. In Persia 22 ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE we may clearly trace in Muhammadan build¬ ings the older Persian type, and in India IN 8. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. the Saracenic architects showed the same pliancy in adopting the styles of the various peoples amongst whom they settled. It thus happens (says Fergusson, in his History of Indian Architecture ), that we have at least twelve or fifteen different styles of Muham¬ madan architecture in Central Asia and in India. IN THE TAJ MAHALL, AGRA. A striking and distinctive feature in early Muhammadan architecture is the horse-shoe arch, which in time gives way to a cusped or scalloped arch, strictly so termed, the outline being produced by intersecting semi-arches. Another variety of Saracenic arch is tho cir¬ cular-headed and stilted form. The pillars are commonly of exceedingly slender proportions. almost to apparent insecurity; but owing to the style of the embellishment, this lightness IN THE MOTI MASJID, AGRA. of particular forms tends to heighten the general luxuriance. Some have imagined that this element of slenderness in regard to pillars indicates a tent origin of the style. This tent-like character has been further kept up by concave ceilings and cupolas, embla¬ zoned with painting and gilding. Decorations composed of animal and human figures, being interdicted by Muhammadan law [pictures] are not found in Saracenic architecture ; but their geometrical patterns exhibit sin¬ gular beauty and complexity, inexhaustible variety of combinations, and a wonderful degree of harmonious intricacy, arising out of very simple elements. Lattice or open trellis EARLY PATHAN STYLE IN THE QUTB BUILTINGS AT DELHI. work is another fertile source of embellish¬ ment, and is similar to the tracery met with in Gothic buildings. Another characteristic of Saracenic style is that of the dome. For the most part domes occur in mosques and tombs, and aro of Byzantine origin. Minarets are also a special feature in Muhammadan mosques, and contribute much to the pic- turesqucnesH of these buildings. They arc ASHAB ‘ARIYAH found in mosques of the later Saracenic style. (See Fergus s on’s Indian and Eastern Architec- IN A HOUSE IN PRSIIAWAR. lure, Mr. Owen Jones’s Alhambra Palace , Her- semer’s Arabisclic Bauverzierungen.') ‘ARlYAH (hf). A kind of sale permitted in Islam, namely, when a person computes what quantity of fruit there is on a tree and sells it before it is plucked. (Mish- kat, xii. c. v.) ‘ARlYAH (*?». (1) A loan for the use of anything of which Qcirz cannot be made: e.g. the loan of a horse is 1 Any ah ; the loan of money is Qarz. (2) A gift, of which the following is an example : — A person makes a gift to another of the dates of a palm-tree in his garden; but having after¬ wards some doubt of the propriety of that person coming daily to his garden where his family usually are, and being at the same time unwilling to depart from his promise, or to retract his gift, he gives some v/f the dates that have already been pulled in lieu of those upon the tree. (Baillie’s law of Sale, p. 300.) ARK, NOAH’S (tf cdli). It ;s mentioned in the history of the Deluge, as recorded in the Qur'an, in two places — Surah xi. 30, “ Build the ark under our eye and after our revelation,” and Surah xxiii 27. There is also supposed to be an allusion to the ark in Surah xxxvi. 41. “And a sign to them is that we bare their offspring in the laden ship." Al-Baizawi says that Noah was two years building the ark, which was 300 cubits long. 50 wide, and 30 broad, and which was made of Indian plane-tree ; that it consisted of th "ee storeys, the lowest for beasts, the middle for men and women (who were separated from each other), and the highest for birds. The ark is said to have rested on the moun¬ tain al-Judi. [noah.] ARK OF THE COVENANT. Tlie 23 Hebrew word for “Ark” is pQTl (Le- T •• a chest, a coffer), Chald. T ** Arabic See Qur’an, Surah ii. 249, “ The sign of his (Saul's) kingdom is that there shall come unto you the ark ( Tabut ) ; in it shall be security (or the Shechi- nah, sakinah , Heb. from Your t * : Lord, and the relies of what the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left ; the angels shall bear it.” Jalalu d-din says this ark contained the images of the prophets, and was sent down from heaven to Adam, and at length came to the Israelites, who put great confidence therein, and continually car¬ ried it in front of their army, till it was taken by the Amalekites. But on this occasion the angels brought it back in the sight of all the people, and placed it at the feet of Saul ( Tdlut ), who was thereupon unanimously received as king. ARMS, The Sale of. Tlie sale of armour or warlike stores to rebels, or in their camp, is forbidden, because selling arms into the hands of rebels is an assistance to defec¬ tion. But it is not forbidden to sell the mate¬ rials for making arms to such persons. (Hamilton’s Hi day ah, vol. ii. 225.) ARSH (1.) A legal term for compensation. (2.) Amulet ; a fine; par¬ ticularly that which is paid for shedding of blood. (3.) A gift for conciliating the favour of a judge ; a bribe. (4.) Whatever a pur¬ chaser receives from a seller after discover¬ ing a fault in the article bought. ‘ARSH (uy^). The term used in the Qur’an for the throne of God. Surah ix. 131, “He is the Lord of the mighty throne." HusainI, the commentator, says the throne has 8,000 pillars, and the distance between each pillar is 3,000.000 miles. ‘ASABAH (^ “ The sitters on the bench” of the temple at Makkah. They are thus de¬ scribed by Abu ’1-Fida: “They were poor strangers, without friends or place of abode, who claimed the promises of the Apostle of God and implored his protection. Thus the porch of the temple became their mansion, and thence they obtained their name. When Muhammad went to meals, he used to call some of them to partake with him ; and he selected others to eat with his companions.” ’ASHARAH MUBASHSHARAH SyLe). “ The ten who received glad tidings.” Ten of the most distinguished of Muhammad’s followers, whose certain entrance into Paradise he is said to have foretold. They are Abu Bakr. ‘Umar. Usman, ‘AH, Talhah,az-Zubair,‘Abdu *r- Rahman. Sa*d-ibn- Abu-Waqqag, Sa‘id ibn Zaid. Abu ‘Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah. (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. x*., part ii.) Muhammad declared it presumption for anyone to count upon an entrance into heaven with absolute certainty, but he made an exception in favour of these ten distin¬ guished persons. al-ASH‘ARIYAH (V*3')- A sect formed by Abu ’1-Hasan ‘AH ibn Isma‘il al-Ash‘ari. born A.H. 260 (a.d, 873-4). AL-ASH ARIVAH ASWAD 25 They hold that the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in such a way as to forbid any comparison being made between God and His creatures. They say they are not “ ‘am nor ghair: ” not of His essence, nor distinct from it: i.e. they cannot be compared with any other things. 1 hey also hold ' that God has one eternal will, from which proceed all things, the good and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written on the eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with the Sifiitls, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man, they say that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannot create any¬ thing new, for then God’s sovereignty would be impaired ; so they say that God in His pro¬ vidence so orders matters that whenever “ a man desires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to the desire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted onto the desire.” Thus it seemS as if it came naturally from the will of the man. whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition), because it is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed to the obtaining of profit or the removing of injury: the term is therefore in¬ applicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr al-Bakil- lanl, a disciple of al-Ash‘ari, says: ‘ The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of God, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action of disobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, which proceed from the power of man.” The Imam Al- Haramain (a.h. 419-478) held “that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has created in man.” Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayinl says : “ That which maketh im¬ pression, or hath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power of man.” They also believe that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledge that the vocal sounds used in the Qur’an, which are the manifestation of that word, are created. They say, in short, that the Qur’an contains (1) the eternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was ; and (2) the word which consists of sounds and combina¬ tions of letters. This last they call the created word. Thus Al-Ash‘arl traversed the main posi¬ tions of the Mutazilites, denying that man can, by the aid of his reason alone, rise to the knowledge of good and evil. He must exer¬ cise no judgment, but accept all that is re¬ vealed. He has no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the actions of God. It cannot be asserted by the human, reason that the good will be rewarded or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approach God as a slave, in whom there is no hg-t or knowledge to judge of the actions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or not cannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law (Sale, from II, n Khaldun ; I ho Mu'taziliten Oder die Freidenker in Ishlm, mn H. Steiner. 18G5 : Zurlleschichte Abu 7 -Hasan al-ash'arish , von W. Spitta. 1876 ; De Strijd over het Dogma in den Islam tot op El-ash' ari , door Dr. M. Th. Houtsma, Leiden, 1875 ; and Expose de la lie forme de f Islamisme, by M. A. F. Mebren Leiden, 1878.) ‘ASHURA (A^aAc). Lit. “the tenth.” A voluntary fast day, observed on the tenth of the month of Muharram. It is related that Muhammad observed it, and said it was a day respected by Jews and Christians. ( Mishkat , vii. c. vii. 1.) It is the only day of Muharram observed by the Sunni Muslims, being the day on which it is said* God created Adam and Eve. heaven and hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, life, and death. It is kept by the Sunnis as a fast. [muharram.] ASIYAH (<44). The wife of Pharaoh. One of the four perfect women (the Virgin Mary, Khadljali, and Fatimali, being the other three). See Mishlcdtu 7- Ma - sdbih , xxiv. c. 22. She is mentioned in the Qur’an (Surah lxvi. 11): “ And God striketh . out a parable for those who believe : the wife of Pharaoh, when she said, ‘ My Lord, build for me a house with Thee in Paradise, and save me from Pharaoh and his works, and save me from the unjust people.” ASL (J*d). Cause, first principle, foundation. Asl-wafai “cause and effect,” “ fundamental and derivative principle.” ASMA’U ’LLAH (<0J\ «U~V). [god, NAMES OF.] ‘ASR (z^). The afternoon prayer, [prayers.] The title of the cnird Surah of the Qur’an. ASS. According to the Imam Abu Hanifah, the ass is an unclean animal, and its flesh and milk are unlawful; nor is zakdt to be given on an ass. (Hamilton’s Iliduuah , vol. i. 16, iv. 74, 86.) ASSISTANTS. [ansar.] ASTROLOGY. Arabic ‘Ilmu nujiim. Qatadak says, referring to the Qur’an, that God has created stars for three uses : (l)..a® ar> ornament to the heavens (Surah 1 x vii. 5) ; (2) to stone the Devil with (Surah lx vii. 5) ; and (3) to direct travellers through the forests and on the sea (Surah xv. 16). Muhammad condemns those who study the stars for any other purpose ( Mishkat , xxi. c. iii. pt. iii.), and consequently the science of Astrology is not considered lawful in Islam. ASAV AD An impostor who, in the time of Muhammad, claimed the prophetic office. His name was ‘Aihalah ibn Ka‘b, and he belonged to the tribe of ‘Aus, of which he was an influential chief He v as surnamed Zu 7» J lunar , or “The Master of the Ass,” * because ho used But another reading is Zu, with the veil.” ’l-Khinu fr. or, “ He 1 2G ATHEIST frequently to say, “The master of the ass is coming unto mo,’ and pretended to receive his rovelations from two angels, named Suhaik and Shuraik. Being a good hand at legerde¬ main, and having a smooth tongue, he gained mightily on the multitude bv the strange feats which he shewed them, and the elo¬ quence of his discourse. By these means he greatly increased his power, and having mude i himself master of Najran and the territory of Ta’if, on the death of Badhan, the governor of Yaman for Muhammad, he seized that pro¬ vince also, killing Shahr, the son of Badhan, and taking to wife his. widow Azad, whose father he had also slain. The news being brought to Muhammad, he sent to his friends and to the tribe of Hamdan, a party of whom conspiring with Qais ibn ‘Abd Yaghuth, who bore Aswad a grudge, and with Firuz and Aswad’s wife, broke by night into hiH house, where Firuz surprised him and cut off his head. While dying, it is said that he roared like a bull, at which his guards came to the chamber door, but were sent away by his wife, who told them that the prophet was only agitated by the divine inspiration. This was done the very night before Muhammad died. The next morning the conspirators caused the following proclamation to be made, viz. “ I bear witness that Muhammad is the Apostle of God, and that ’Aihala is a liar”; and letters were immediately sent away to Muhammad, with an account of what had been done ; but a messenger from heaven outstripped them, and acquainted the prophet with the news, which he imparted to his Companions a little before his death, the letters themselves not arriving till Abu Bakr was chosen Khalif. It is said that Muham¬ mad on his occasion told those who attended him that before the Day of Judgment thirty more impostors, besides Musailimah and As¬ wad, should appear. The whole time from the beginning of Aswad’s rebellion to his death was four months. ATHEIST, [dahri.] ‘ATI RAH (S^c). The sacrifice offered by the idolatrous Arabs in the month of Rajah. It was allowed by the Prophet at the commencement of his mission, but was afterwards abolished. Mishkat, book iv. c. .>0, “ Let there be no Fara‘ nor * Atirah.” AT-TAHlYAT (^1). Lit. “the greetings.” A part of the stated prayers, recited after the Takbiru V- Llu'ud, after every two rak'ahs. It is recited whilst the worshipper kneels upon the ground. His left foot bent under him, he sits upon it, and places his hands upbn his knees, and says : — “ The adorations (i.e. at-tahiyatu) of the tongue are for God, and also of the body and of alms-giving. Peace be on thee, 0 Prophet, with the mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be upon us, and upon God s righteous servants." ( Mishkdt , iv., c. xvi.) [trayeh.J AUGURY. >a’l.] AYATU L-FATH AULlYA pi. of t calf. “ favourites of God.” The expression occurs in the Quran in the following verse, “ Are not the favourites of God those on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be pit to grief? " (Surah x. 63). AUTAD Lit. “props or pillars.” A term used by the Sufis for the four paints, by whom the four corners of the world are said to be supported. A‘CZU BILLAH (*UV» An¬ other name for the TiiMumuz, or the prayer in the daily liturgy: “ I seek refuge \vith God from the cursed Satan.” [prayer.] AVENGER OF BLOOD. In the Muhammadan law, as in the Jewish, the punishment for wilful murder is left to the next of kin ; but in the Jewish code the avenger of blood was compelled to tako the life of the murderer, whilst in the Muslim code he may accept compensation, vide Qur’an, Surah ii. 173, “0 believers! retaliation (Qisas) for blood-shedding is prescribed to you : the free man for the free, and the slave for the slave, and the woman for the woman ; but he to whom his brother shall make any remission is to be dealt with equitably; and a payment should be made to him with liberality. This is a relaxation (i.e. of tho stricter hr tali on in') from your Lord, and a mercy.” [qisas.] AYAH (*H). Lit. “a sign, or miracle.” The term used for one of the smaller portions of the chapters of thcQur’un, which we call verses. The number of verses is often set down after the title of the chapter, but the verses are not marked in the text as they are in our English Bibles. The number of verses in the Qur’an is variously estimated, but they are generally said to be about six thousand two hundred, [qi r'an.] al-A‘YANU ’S.SABITAH .yj\ a>\). “ The verse of inheritances.” The twelfth verse of the Suratu ’n-nisa, or fourth chapter of the Qur’an. It relates to inheritance, and is the foundation of the Muslim law on the subject. It is given in the article on Inhe¬ ritance. [inheritance.] AYIMMATU’L-ASMA (*U “ The leading names.” The seven principal names or titles of God, namely: — a. i-ljayy Al-lAlim A l- Mu rid A/- Qddir As- So mV Al-Basir A l-Mutakalh The Living. The Knowing. The Purposer. The Powerful. The Hearer. The Seer. The Speaker. ‘AYISHAH (ii-U). The daugbte of Abu Bakr, and the favourite wife of Ml hammad, to whom she was married whe only nine years of age. She survived h< husband many years, and died at al-Madinal a h. 58 (a. i». 678), aged sixty-seven, an obtained the title of Ummu ’ l-Mu'minin , “ Th Mother of the Believers.” A^ MAN pi. of Yamln. [«»ATHR.] AYYAMU’L-BlZf^V^)- “The d.-ivs of the bright nights,” mentioned in the Mishkat (book vii. c. 7. part St), as days on which Muhammad did not eat, whether halt¬ ing or marching. They are the 13th, 14th, and 15th nights of the month. (See Lane s Diet., p. 284.) AYYAMU ’L-QARR (/" eW). The day of rest after the day of sacrifice at the Pilgrimage, [hajj.] AYYAMU’N-NAHR The season of sacrifice at the Pilgrimage. [hajj.] AYYAMU’T - TASHRIQ O' — ) . The three days after the feast of sacrifice at Mina during the Pilgrim¬ age. So called because the flesh of the victims is then dried , or because they are not slain until after sun-rise, [hajj, pilgrimage.] AYYIM (^>1). A legal term for a woman having no husband, whether she be a virgin or a widow. ‘AZABU’L-QABR (yM -A^). “ The punishment of the grave.” That all persons, whether believers or not, undergo some punishment in their graves, is a funda¬ mental article of the Muslim belief. These punishments are described in the following Hadis on the authority of Abu Hurairah : — “ The Prophet of God said, When a corpse is placed in its grave, two black angels come to it, with blue eyes. The name of the one is Munkar and of the other Nakir, and they inter¬ rogate the dead person concerning the Prophet ‘of God. If he be a Muslim, he will bear witness to the Unity of God and the mission of Muhammad. The angels will then say, ‘ We knew thou wouldst say so ’ ; and the grave will then expand seventy times seventy yards in length, and seventy times seventy in breadth. A light will then be given for the grave, and it will be said, ‘ Sleep.’ Then the dead person will say, ‘ Shall I return to my brethren and inform them of this ? ’ Then the angels will say, ‘ Sleep like the bride¬ groom, till God shall raise thee up from the grave on the Day of Resurrection.’ But if the corpse be that of an unbeliever, it will be asked, ‘ What sayest thou about the Prophet ? ’ and he will reply, ‘ I know him not.’ And then the angels will sav, ‘ We knew thou wouldst say so.’ Then the ground will be ordered to close in upon him, and it will break his sides, and turn his right side to his left, and he will suffer perpetual punishment till God raise him therefrom.” In another tradition, recorded by ‘Anas, it is said, “ The wicked will be struck with a rod ( mitraqah \ and they will roar out, and their cries will be heard by all animals that may be near the grave excepting man and the genii.” (Mishkat, book i., c. v.). All Muhammadan doctors of the orthodox schools (whether we apply the term orthodox to Sunni or Shi‘ah) believe in the literal inter¬ pretation of those punishments in the grave, which arc said to take place as soon as the funeral party has left the grave-yard. A 28 AZAL AZAN perusal of tho various traditions on the sub¬ ject must convince any unprejudiced mind that Muhammad intended to teach a literal interpretation of his sayings on this subject. It is related that on one occasion, when the Prophet was riding through a grave-yard, his mule, hearing the groans of the dead, tried to throw his master. On that occasion, Muham¬ mad said, “If I were not afraid that you would loave off burying, I would ask God to give you tho power of hearing what I hear.” Shaik]| *Abdu '1-Haqq, in his commentary on the Mishkat , says, “The accounts which are here given of the punishment of the grave, are undoubtedly true, and they are not either imaginary or figurative.” (Mishkat, book i., chap. v. ; see Persian edition with ‘Abdu ’1- Haqq’s commentary.) AZAL Eternity with re¬ spect. to the past, as distinguished from abad eternity without end. AZAN (est of works!” and by repeating^the last sentence of the Azan, “ There is no god but God, twice instead of once, as in the Sunni Azan. When the Azan is recited, it is usual for men of piety and religious feeling to respond to each call, as, for example, when the Mu’azzin cries : — Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar 1 Allahu akbar! Allahu akbar! ” Those who hear it repeat : — “ Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! ” The Mu' azzin says — “I testify that there is no god but God ; I testify that there is no God but God.” They reply — “I testify that there is no God but God ; I testify that there is no god but God.” Mu azzin. — *• I testify that Muhammad is the Apostle of God.” Reply. •“ I testify that Muhammad is the Apostle of God.” Mu’azzin. — “ Como to prayer.” Reply. — “ I have no power nor strength but from God the most High and Great.” Mu’azzin. — •“ Come to salvation.” Reply.— “ What God willeth will be; what He willeth not willeth not be.” . ^le recital of the Azan must be listened to with great reverence. If a person be walk¬ ing at tho time, he should stand still ; if re- ( lining, sit up. Mr. Lane, in his Modern Lyyytians , says, “ Most of the Mu’azzins of Cairo have harmonious and sonorous voices, which they strain to the utmost pitch ; yet there is a simple and solemn melody in their chants which is very striking, particularly in the stillness of the night.” Rut Vambery re¬ marks that “the Turkistanees most carefully a\ oid all tune and melody. Tho manner in * which tho Azan is cried in the west is here (in Bokhara) declared sinful, and the beautiful melancholy notes which, in the silent hour of a moonlit evening, are heard from the slender minarets on the Bosphorus, fascinat¬ ing every hearer, would be listened to by the Bo kha riot with feelings only of detestation.” The summons to prayer was at first the simple cry, “ Como to public prayer.” After the Qiblah was changed, Muhammad be¬ thought himself of a more formal call. Some suggested the Jewish trumpet, others the Christian boll ; but neither was grateful to the 1 i ophet s ear. I he Azan, or call to prayer was then established. Tradition claims for it a supernatural origin, thus : — “ While the matter was under discussion, ‘Abdu ’llah, a Khazrajite, dreamed that he met a man clad in green raiment, carrying a bell. ‘Abdu ’llah sought to buy it, saying that it would do well for bringing together tho assembly of the faithful. “I will show thee a better way,” replied the stranger ; “ let a crier cry aloud, ‘ God is most great,’ Ac.” Waking from sloop, ‘Abdu ’llah proceeded to Muhammad, and told him his dream. (Muir, from Katibu 7- I Vdkid'h) Hishami recites the story as if ‘*\ bdu’lluh had actually met the man. Bingham, in his Antiquities (vol. ii, . book AZAli BACKBITING 29 viii. cliap. vii.), relates that, in the monastery of virgins which Paula, the famous Roman lady, set up and governed at Jerusalem, the signal for prayer was given by one going about and singing “Hallelujah! for that was their call to church, as St. Jeromo informs us. The Azan is proclaimed before the stated times of prayer, either b}r one of the congre¬ gation, or by the Mu’azzin or crier, who is paid for the purpose. He must stand with his face towards Makkah, with the points of his foie- lingers in his ears, and recite the formula which has 'been given above. It must not be recited by an unclean person, a drunkard, a madman, or a woman. AZAR (;j\) Terah, the father of Abraham. Surah, vi. 74, “And when Abralilm said to his father Azar, Takest thou images as gods ? “ The Eastern authors unanimously agree that he was a statuary, or carver of idols ; and he is represented as the first who made images of clay, pictures only having been in use before, and taught that they were to be adored as gods. However, we ai;e told his employment was a very honourable one, and that he was a great lord, and in high favour with Nimrod, whose son-in-law he was, be¬ cause he made his idols for him, and was excellent in his art. Some of the Rabbins say Terah was a priest and chief of the order.” — (Sale.) al-AZARIQAH ('iij')'J'). A sect of heretics founded by Nafi‘ ibn al-Azraq, who say that ‘All was an infidel, and that his assassin was light in killing him. (See ash- Shahrastdni , ed. Cureton, p. a°i, Haarbruecker s translation, I., p. 133. al-‘AZBA’ The slit-eared; one of Muhammad’s favourite camels. al-AZHA [‘idu’l-azha.] al-‘AZIM One of the ninety-nine special names of God. “ The great One/’ ‘AZlMAII 0^;c). An incanta¬ tion. [exorcism.] • al-‘AZIZ (vaydl).. One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It fre¬ quently occurs in the Qur'an. It means “ the powerful, or the mighty One.’’ ‘AZRA’lL (J*V)- The an?el of Death. Mentioned in the Qur’an under the title of Malaku ’l-Mciut, Surah xxxii. 11, “ The angel of death who is charged with you shall cause you to die.” [malaku 'l-maut.] BABEL. Arabic Bdbil. Men¬ tioned once in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 9(5 : “ Sorcery did they teach to men, and what had been revealed to the two angels Harut and Marut at Babil.” Babel is regarded by the Muslims as tne fountain-head of the science of magic. They suppose Harut and Marfut to be two angels who, in consequence of their want of compassion for the frailties of mankind, were sent down to earth to be tempted. They both sinned, and, being permitted to choose whether they would be punished now or here¬ after, chose the former, and are still sus¬ pended by the feet at Babel in a rocky pit, and are the great teachers of magic, (Lane’s Thousand and One Nights, ch. iii. note 14.) Vide Taj'sir-i-' Azizi in loco. BABU ’L-ABWAB MyN yl}). Lit. “ The door of doors.” A term used by the Sufis for repentance. (‘Abdu T-Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi Terms. ) BABU ’S-SALAM ) . “ The Gate of Peace.” The gateway in the $acred mosque at Makkah through which Muhammad entered when he was elected by the Quraish to decide the question as to which section of the tribe should lift the Black Stone into iis place. It was originally called the Bab Bam Shaibah, “ the Gate of the Banu Shaibah,” the family of Shaibah ibn ‘Usman, to whom Muhammad gave the key of the Ka‘bah. Burkhardt says that there are now two gateways called by this name. Burton says, “ The Babu’s-Salam resembles in its isolation a triumphal arch, and is built of cut stone.” (Burton's Pilgrimage, vol. ii. p. 174. See Muir's LiJ'e of Mahomet , pp. 23, 29.) BABU ’N-NISA, v»b). “The W omen's Gate.” In later years, as Muhammad added to the number of his wives, he provided for each a room or house on the same side of the mosque at al-Madinah. From these he 1 had a private entrance into the mosque, used only by himself, and the eastern gate still bears in its name, Babu ’n-Nisa’, the memory of the arrangement. (Muir's Life of Maho - met, iii. p. 20.) BACKBITING. Anything secretly whispered of an absent person which is cal¬ culated to injure him, and which is true, is called Ghibah , a false accusation being ex¬ pressed by Buhtan. Abu Hurairah say®, “ The question was pat to the Prophet, ‘ Do you know what backbiting is ? ’ and he replied, ‘ It is saying anything bad of a Muslim.’ It was then said, ‘But what is it if it is true?’ 30 BAD AW I BAl‘ And ho said, ‘ If it is true it is G hi bah, and if it is a falso accusation, it is Buhtdn {i.e. slander).’ ” ( Mishkat , xxii. c. x.) The following are sayings of Muhammad on the subject : — “ The best of God’s servants are those who when you meet them speak of God. The worst of God’s servants are those who carry tales about, to do mischief and separate friends, and seek out the defects of good people.” “ He who wears two faces in this world shall have two tongues of tire in the day of the Resurrection.” “ It is unworthy of a believer to injure people’s reputations, or to curse anyone, or to abuse anyone, or to talk vainly.” “The best atonement you can make for backbiting is to say, ‘ 0 God pardon me and him (whom I have injured).’” Mishkdt, xxii. c. x. BADAVV! A name given to the Bedouin Arabs, or the Arabs of the desert. Bedouin is only a corruption of the plural of this word, which is derived from Badw = Badiyah, “ a desert.” al-BADI‘ (£j.juN) is one of the ninety-nine special names of God. It means “ He who originates.” It occurs ui the Qur’an, Surah ii. Ill, “ He is the wonderful originator of the heavens and the earth; when He decreeth a matter, Ho doth but say to it, * Be,’ and it is.” BADR, The battle of. Arabic, Ghazwatu ’ l-Budr . The first battle of Badr was fought in the month of Ramazan, a.h. 2 (March, a.d. 624), between Muhammad and the Quraish. Many of the principal men of the Quraish were slain, including Abu Jahl, whose head was brought to the Pro¬ phet, and when it was cast at his feet, he exclaimed, “ It is more acceptable to me than the choicest camel of Arabia.” After the battle was over, some of the prisoners were cruelly murdered. Husain says the losses of the Quraish at Badr were seventy killed and seventy prisoners. This victory at Badr con¬ solidated the power of Muhammad, and it is regarded by Muslim historians as one of the most important events of history. An account of this celebrated battle will be found in the article on Muhammad. The second battle of Badr was a bloodless victory, and took place in the month Zu 1- Qa‘dah, a.h. 4 (April, a.d. 626). BAHlRA A Nostorian monk whom Muhammad met when he was journeying back from Syria to Makkah, and who is said to have perceived by 'various signs that he was a prophet. His Christian name is supposed to have been Sergius (or Georgius). Sprenger thinks that Bahira remained with Muhammad, and it has been suggested that there is an allusion to this monk in the Qur’an, Surah xvi. 105 : “ We know that they say, * It is only a man who teacheth him.’” Husain the commentator says on this passage that the Prophet was in the habit of going evory evening to a Christian to hear the Taurat and Injil. Tafiir-i-IIusaini ; Sale, p. 223 ; Muir's Life of Slahumet , p. 72.) BAH1RAH (Sj^.). (1.) A she-camel, she-goat or ewe, which had given birth to a tenth young one. (2.) A she-camel,* the mother of which had brought forth ten females consecutively before her. In these and similar cases, the pagan Arabs observed certain religious ceremonies, such as slitting the animal’s ear, Arc., all of which are forbidden in the Qur’an : “ God hath not ordained any Bahirah.” (Surah v. 102.) BAI‘ , pi. b uyu ‘). A sale ; commercial dealing;' barter. Bui', or •* sale,’’ in the language of the law, signifies an exchange of property for property with the mutual con¬ sent of parties. For the rules concerning sales and barter, see Hamilton’s Uiddyah, vol. ii. 360 ; Baillie’s Muhammadan Law of Sale-, The Fatuwa ‘ A/umyiri . Sale, in its ordinary acceptation, is a transfer of property in consideration of a price in money. The word has a more com¬ prehensive meaning in the Muhammadan law, and is applied to every exchange of pro¬ perty for property with mutual consent. It, therefore, includes barter as well as sale, and also loan, when the articles lent are intended to be consumed, and replaced to the lender by a similar quantity of the same kind. This transaction, which is truly an exchange of property for property, is termed qarz, in the Muhammadan law. Between barter and sale there is no essen¬ tial distinction in most systems of law, and the joint subject may in general be consider¬ ably simplified by being treated of solely as a sale. A course has been adopted in the Muhammadan law, which obliges the reader to fix his attention on both sides of the con¬ tract. This may at first appear to him to be an unnecessary complication of the subject, but when he becomes acquainted witn the definition of price, and the rules for the pro¬ hibition of excess in the exchange of a lar^e class of commodities, which apply to every form of the contract, he will probably be of opinion that to treat of the subject in any other wav w'ould be attended with at least equal difficulties. The first point which seems to require his attention is the meaning of the word “ pro¬ perty” as it occurs in the definition of sale. The original term {mat), which has been thus translated, is defined by Muhammadan lawyers to be “that which can be taken possession of and secured. ’ This definition seems to imply that it is tangible or corpo¬ real, and things or substances are accordingly the proper subjects of sale. Mere rights are not mat, and cannot therefore be lawfully sold apart from the corporeal things with which they may happen to be connected. Of such rights one of the most important it the right 31 BAr of a creditor to exact payment of a debt, which is not a proper subject of sale. In other words, debts cannot, by the Muham¬ madan law, any more than by the common laws of England and Scotland, be lawfully sold. Things are commonly divided into move- able and immoveable, the latter compre¬ hending land and things permanently attached to it. But the distinction is not of much im¬ portance in the Muhammadan law, as the transfer of land is in nowise distinguished from that of other kinds of property. A more important division of things is that into misli and kammi. The former are things which, when they happen to perish, are to be replaced by an equal quantity of something similar to them ; and the latter are things which, in the same circumstances, are to be replaced by their value. These two classes have been aptly styled “similars" and “ dis- similars ” by Mr. Hamilton, in his translation of the Hidayah. Similars are things which are usually sold or exchanged by weight, or by measurement of capacity, that is, by dry or liquid measure; and dissimilars are things which are not sold or exchanged in either of these ways. Articles which are nearly alike, and are commonly sold or exchanged by number or tale, are classed with the first division of t lings, and may be termed “ simi¬ lars of tale”; while articles which differ mate¬ rially from each other, yet are still usually sold or exchanged by number, belong to the second division, and may be called “ dissimi¬ lars of tale.” Dirhams and dinars, the only coined money known to the old Arabs, arc included among similars of weight. Similars of weight and capacity are dis¬ tinguished in the Muhammadan law from all other descriptions of property in a very re¬ markable way. When one article of weight is sold or exchanged for another article of weight, or one of measure is sold or ex¬ changed for another of measure, the delivery of both must be immediate from hand to hand, and any delay of delivery in one of them is unlawful and prohibited. Where, again, the articles exchanged are also of the same kind, as when wheat is sold for wheat, or silver for silver, there must not only be reciprocal and immediate delivery of both before the separa¬ tion of the parties, but also absolute equality cf weight or measure, according as the articles are weighable or measurable, and any excess on either side is also unlawful and prohibited. These two prohibitions constitute in brief the doctrine of reba , or “ usury,” which is a marked characteristic of the Muhammadan law of sale. The word reba proporly signifies “ excess,” and there are no terms in the Muhammadan law which corresponds to tho words “ interest ” and “ usury, in the sense attached to them in the English language; but it was expressly prohibited by Muhammad to his followers to derive any advantage from loans, and that particular kind of advantage which is cnlled by us interest, and consists in the receiving back from tin* borrower a larger quantity than was a' tually lent to him, was effectually BA I prevented by the two rules above-mentioned. These, like some other principles of Muham¬ madan law, are applied with a rigour and minuteness that may to us seem incommen¬ surate with their importance, but are easily accounted for when we know that they are believed to be of divine origin. Similars of weight and capacity have a common feature of resemblance, which dis¬ tinguishes them in their own nature from other commodities, and marks with further peculiarity their treatment in the Muham¬ madan law. They are aggregates of minute parts, which are either exactly alike, or so nearly resemble each other, that the differ¬ ence between them maybe safely disregarded. For this reason they are usually dealt with in bulk, regard being had only to the whole of a stipulated quantity, and not to the individual parts of which it is composed. When sold in this manner they are said to be indeter¬ minate. They may, however, be rendered specific in several ways. Actual delivery, or production with distinct reference at the time of contract, seems to be sufficient for that purpose in all case's. But something short of this would suffice for all similars but money. Thus, flour, or any kind of grain, may be rendered specific by being enclosed in a sack ; or oil, or any liquid, by being put into casks or jars ; and though the vessels are not actually produced at the time of con¬ tract, their contents may be sufficiently par¬ ticularised by description of the vessels and their locality. Money is not susceptible of being thus particularised, and dirhams and dinars arc frequently referred to in the fol¬ lowing pages as things which cannot be ren¬ dered specific by description, or specification, as it is more literally termed. Ilonce, money is said to be always indeterminate. Other similars, including similars of tale, arc some¬ times specific and sometimes indeterminate. Dissimilars, including those of tale, are always specific. When similars are sold indeterminately, the purchaser has no right to any specific portion of them until it be separated from a general mass, and marked or identified as the subject of the contract. From the moment of offer till actual delivery, he has nothing to rely upon but the seller’s obliga¬ tion, which may, therefore, be considered the direct subject of the contract. Similars taken indeterminately are accordingly termed dayn, or “ obligations,” in the Muhammadan law! When taken specifically, they are classed with dissimilars, under the general name of The literal meaning of this term is “ substance or thing but when opposed to dai/n it means something determinate or spe¬ cific. The subject of traffic may thus bo divided into two classes, specific and indeter¬ minate ; or. if we substitute for the latter the word “ obligation,” and omit the word “spe¬ cific" as unnecessary when not opposed to “ indeterminate,” these classes may, according to the view of Muhammadan lawyers bo described as things and obligations. Thei e is some degree of presumption in using 32 BA l* a word in any other than its ordinary accepta¬ tion; and it is not without hesitation that (Mr. Baillie says) I have ventured to employ the word “obligation” to signify indeterminate things. My reasons for doing so are these : first it expresses the exact meaning of the Arabic word dayn, and yet distinguishes this use of it from another sense, in which it is also employed in the Muhammadan law ; second, it preserves consistency in the law. Thus, it will be found hereafter that the effect of sale is said to be to induce a right in the buyer to the thing sold, and in the seller to the price, and that this effect follows the contract im¬ mediately before ieciprocal possession by the contracting parties. Xow, it is obvious that this is impossible with regard to things that are indeterminate, if the things themselves are considered the subject of the contract , and cases are mentioned where it is expressly stated that there is no transfer of property to the purchaser, when similars of weight of capacity are sold without being distinctly specified, until actual possession take place. The difficulty dis¬ appears if we consider not the thing itself but the obligation to render it to be the sub¬ ject of contract; for a right to the obligation passes immediately to the purchaser, and the seller may be compelled to perform it. If we now revert to the division of things into simi¬ lars and dissimilars, money — which, it has been remarked, is always indeterminate — is therefore an obligation ; dissimilars, which are always specific, are never obligations ; and other similars, except money, being some¬ times specific and sometimes indeterminate, are at one time obligations, and at another time things or substances. Before proceeding farther it is necessary to advert more particularly to the other sense in which the word dayn is frequently employed in the Muhammadan law. It means strictly obligation,” as already observed ; but the obligation may be either that of the contract¬ ing party himself, or of another. In the former sense deyn is not only a proper sub¬ ject of traffic, but forms the sole subject of one important kind of sale, hereafter to be noticed. But when dayn is used to signify the obligation of another than the contracting party, it is not a proper subject of traffic, and, as already observed, cannot be lawfully sold. In the following pages dayn has been always translated by the word “ debt ’ when it signifies the obligation of a third part}', and generally by the word “ obligation," when it sig¬ nifies the engagement of the contracting party himself, though when the things represented by the obligation are more prominently brought forward, it has sometimes been found neces¬ sary to substitute the expression, “indeter¬ minate things." Though barter and sale for a price, are con¬ founded under one general name in the Mu¬ hammadan law, it is sometimes necessary to consider one of the things exchanged as more strictly the subject of sale, or thing sold, and the other as the price. In this view the former is termed main *, and the latter Soman. Soman, or “price." is defined to be dayn /i BA1 zimmahy or, literally, an “ obligation in respon¬ sibility.” From which, unless the expression is a mere pleonasm, it would appear that tho word dayn is sometimes used abstractly, and in a sense distinct from the idea of liability. That idea, however, is necessary to constitute price ; for though cloth, when properly de¬ scribed, may,* by reason of its divisibility and the similarity of its parts, be sometimes assumed to perform the function of price in a contract of sale, it is only when it is not im¬ mediately delivered, but is to remain for some time on the responsibility of the contracting party, that it can be adopted for that pur¬ pose. It is a general principle of the Muham¬ madan law of sale, founded on a declaration of the Prophet,. that credit cannot be opposed to credit, that is, that both the things ex¬ changed cannot be allowed to remain on the responsibility of the parties. Hencfc, it is only with regard to one of them that any stipulation for delay in its delivery is lawful. Price, from its definition atovc given, admits of being left on responsibility, and accord¬ ingly a stipulation for delay in the payment of the price is quite lawful and valid. It follow’s that a stipulation for delay in the delivery of the things sold cannot be lawful. And this is the case, with the exception of one particular kind of sale, hereafter to be noticed, in which the thing sold is always indeterminate, and the price is paid in advance. It may, therefore, be said of all specific things when the subject of sale, that a stipulation for delay in their delivery is illegal, and would invalidate a sale. The object of this rule may have been to prevent any change of the thing sold before delivery, and the disputes which might in consequence arise between the parties. But if they were allowed to select whichever they pleased of the articles exchanged to stand for the price, and the other for the thing sold, without any regard to their qualities, the object of the last-mentioned rule, whatever i. may have been, might be defeated. This seems to have led to another arrangement of things into different classes, according to their capi ’ities for supporting the functions of price or of the thing sold in a contract of sale. The first class comprehends dirhams and dinars, w hich are always price. The second class comprises the whole division of dissimilars (with tho single exception of cloth), which are always the thing sold, or subject of sale, in a con¬ tract. The third class comprises, first, all similars of capacity ; second, all similars of weight, except dirhams ami dinai s ; and, third, all similars of tale. The whole of this class is capable of supporting both functions, and is sometimes the thing sold, and some¬ times the price. The fourth class compiises cloth, and the copper coin called /ulus. ^ale implies a reciprocal vesting of tin price in the seller and of the thing sold in the purchaser. This, as already remarked, is called its legal effect, and sale may be divided into different stages or degrees of '*omplete- i»e«s, according as this effect is immediate. BAI 33 suspended, invalid, or obligatory. Thus, sale must first of all be duly constituted or con¬ tracted. After that, there may still be some bar to its operation, which occasions a sus¬ pension of its effect. This generally arises from a defect of power in the seller, who may not be fully competent to act for himself, or may have insufficient authority, or no autho¬ rity whatever, over the subject of sale. In this class of sales the effect is dependent on the assent or ratification of some other person than the party actually contracting. But whether the effect of a sale be immediate or suspended, there may be some taint of ille¬ gality in the mode of constituting it, or in its subject, or there may be other circumstances connected with it, which render it invalid. The causes of illegality are many and various. But even though a sale should be unimpeachable on the previous grounds, that is, though it should be duly constituted, operative or immediate in its effect, and free from any ground of illegality, still it may not be absolutely binding on the parties. This brings us to another remarkable pecu¬ liarity of the Muhammadan law, viz. the doctrine of option, or right of cancellation. The Prophet himself recommended one of his followers to reserve a locus penitential, or option, for three days in all his purchases. This has led to the option by stipulation, which may be reserved by either of the parties. But besides this, the purchaser has an option without any stipulation, with regard to things which he lias purchased without seeing, and also on account of defects in the thing sold. The greatest of all defects is a want of title or right in the seller. The two last options to the purchase constitute a complete warranty of title and against all defects on the part of the seller, in which respect the Muhammadan more nearly re¬ sembles the Scotch than the English law of sale. There are many different kinds of sale. Twenty or more have been enumerated in the Nihayah, of which eight are mentioned and explained. Four of these, which have refer¬ ence to the thing sold, may require some notice in this place. The first, called Mu- qayazah , is described as a sale of things for things, and corresponds nearly with barter ; but the word “ thing*' Qayn ) is here opposed to obligations, and muqayazah is therefore properly an exchange of specific for specific things. So that if the goods exchanged were on both sides or on either side indeterminate, the transaction would not, I think, be a muqayazah, though still barter. The second sale is called sarf, and is defined to be an exchange of obligations for obligations. The u^ual objects of this contract are dirhams and dinars, which being obligations, the defini¬ tion is generally correct. But an exchange of money for bullion, or bullion for bullion, is also a sarf, and every sale of an obligation for an obligation is not a sarf, so that the definition is redundant as well as defective. It is essen¬ tial to the legality of this kind of sale, that both the thiugs exchanged should be delivered BAI‘ and taken possession of before the separation of the parties, and that v^hen they are of the same kind, as silver for silver, or gold for gold, they should also be exactly equal by weight. These rules are necessary for the avoidance of reha, or “ usury,” as already ex¬ plained ; and the whole of sarf, which is treated of at a length quite disproportionate to its importance, may be considered as a continued illustration of the doctrine of reha. The third kind of sale is salam. It has been already observed that there can be no lawful stipulation for a postponement of the delivery of the thing sold, except under one particular form of sale. The form alluded to is salam.. This word means, literally, “an advance”; and in a salam sale the price is immediately advanced for the goods to be delivered at a future fixed time. It is only things of the class of similars that can be sold in this way, and as they must necessarily be indetermi¬ nate, the proper subject of sale is an obliga¬ tion , while, on the other hand, as the price must be actually paid or delivered at the time of the contract, before the separation of the parties, and must, therefore, even in the case of its being money, be produced, and in consequence be particularised or specific, a salam sale is strictly and properly the sale of an obligation for a thing, as defined above. Until actual payment or delivery of the price, however, it retains its character of an obliga¬ tion, and for this reason the price and the goods are both termed “ debts,” and are adduced in the same chapter as examples of the principle that the sale of a debt, that is, of the money or goods which a person is under engagement to pay or deliver, before possession, is invalid. The last of the sales referred to is the ordinary exchange of goods for money, which being an obligation, the transaction is defined to be the sale of things for obligations. There is another transaction which comes within the definition of sale, and has been already noticed, but may be further adverted to in this place. It is that which is called Qarz in the Arabic, and “ loan ” in the English language. The borrower acquires an abso¬ lute right of property in the things lent, and comes under an engagement to return an equal quantity of things of the same kind. The transaction is therefore necessarily limited to similars, whether of weight, capa¬ city, or tale, and the things lent and repaid being of the same kind, the two rules already mentioned for the prevention of reha, or “ usury,” must be strictly observed. Hence it follows that any stipulation on the part of the borrower for delay or forbearance by the lender, or any stipulation by the lender for interest to be paid by the borrower are alike unlawful. Notwithstanding the stringency of the rules for preventing usury, or the taking any inter¬ est on the loan of money, methods were found for evading them and still keeping within the letter of the law. It had always been con¬ sidered lawful to take a pledge to secure the repayment of a debt. Pledges were ordi- 34 AL-BA‘IS BAI* narily of movable property ; when given as security for a debt, and the pledge happened to perish in the hands of the pawnee, the debt was held to be released to the extent of the value of the pledge. Land, though scarcely liable to this incident, was sometimes made the subject of pledge, and devices were adopted for enabling the lender to derive some advantage from its possession while in in the state of pledge. But the moderate advantage to be derived in this way does not seem to have contented the money-lenders, who in all ages and countries have been of a grasping disposition, and the expedient of a sale with a condition for redemption was adopted, which very closely resembles an English mortgage. In the latter, the condi¬ tion is usually expressed in one of two ways, viz. either that the sale shall become void, or that the lender shall resell to the seller, on payment of principal and interest at an assigned term. The first of these forms would be inconsistent with the nature of sale under the Muhammadan law, but a sale with a covenant by the lender to reconvey to the seller on repayment of the loan seems to have been in use probably long before the form was adopted in Europe. It is probable that a term was fixed within which the re¬ payment should be made. If repayment were made at the assigned term, the lender was obliged to reconvey ; but if not, the pro¬ perty would remain his own, and the differ¬ ence between its value and the price or sum lent might have been made an ample compen¬ sation for the loss of interest. This form of sale, which was called /?az‘u ' l-ivafa , seems to hovfl VvAorj strictly legal according to the most approved authorities, though held to be what the law calls abominable, as a device for obtaining what it prohibits. In constituting sale there is no material difference between the Muhummadan and other systems of law. The offer and accept¬ ance, which are expressed or implied in all cases*, must be so connected as to obviate any doubt of the one being intended to apply to the other. For this purpose the Muham¬ madan law requires that both shall be inter¬ changed at the same meeting of the parties, and that no other business shall be suffered to intervene between an offer and its accept¬ ance. A very slight interruption is sufficient to break the continuity of a negotiation, and to terminate the meeting in a technical sense, though the parties should still remain in per¬ sonal communication. An acceptance after the interruption of an offer made before it would be insufficient to constitute a sale. This has led to distinctions of the meeting which may appear unnecessarily minute to a reader unacquainted with the manners of Eastern countries, where the peoplo are often very dilatory in their bargains, interspersing them with conversation on indifferent topics. It is only when a meeting has reference to the act of contracting that its meaning is thus liable to be restricted ; for when the word occurs in other parts of the law. ns, for instance, when it is said of a fart contract that the things exchanged must be taken pos¬ session of at the meeting, the whole period that the parties may remain together is to be understood. 'As personal con m inication may be inconvenient in some cases, and impossible in others, the integrity of the meeting is held to be sufficiently preserved when a party who receives an offer by message or letter declares his acceptance of it on receiving the commu¬ nication and apprehending its contents. When a sale is lawfully contracted, the property in the things exchanged passes im¬ mediately from and to the parties respec¬ tively. In a legal sale, delivery and possession are not necessary for this purpose. Until possession is taken, however, the purchaser is not liable for accidental loss, and the seller has a lion for the price on the thing sold. Delivery by one party is in general tanta¬ mount to possession taken by the other. It is, therefore, sometimes of great importance to ascertain when there is a sufficient deli¬ very ; and many cases, real or imaginary, on the subject, are inserted in the Fatawa ‘ Alamgiri . It sometimes happens that a person purchases a thing of which he is already in possession, and it then becomes important to determine in what cases his previous possession is convertible into a pos¬ session under the purchase. Unless so con¬ verted, it would be held that there is no delivery under the sale, and the seller would of course retain his lien and remain liable for accidental loss. Though possession is not necessary to com¬ plete the transfer of property under a legal sale, the case is different where the contract is illegal ; for here property does hot pass till possession is taken. The sale, however, though so far effectual, is still invalid, and liable to be set aside by a judge, at the instance of either of the parties, without any reference to the fact of the person complain¬ ing being able to come before him with what in legal phraseology is termed clean hands. A Muhammadan judge is obliged by his law to interfere for the sake of the law itself, or* as it is more solemnly termed, for the right of God, which it is the duty of the judge to vindicate, though by so doing he may afford assistance to a party who personally may have no just claim to his interference. (The Muhammadan La xc of Sale, according to the Haneefee Code, from' the Fatawa Alamgiri, by Neil B. E. Baillie. Smith, Elder & Co., London.) BAIL. 'Arabic ^ kafdlah. Bail is of two descriptions: Kafdlah bi-n-nafn, or “ security for the person Kafdlah bi-'l-mal . or “ security for propertv.” In the English courts in India, bail for the person is termed Hdxir-zamdni, and bail for property Zamanah, or “ security.” Bail for the person is lawful except in cases of punishment ( lludud ) and retaliation (Qi>a» (Hiddyah, voL u. *>. 5-6.) jll-BA‘I§ One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It means BANUN BAITU *L-HAMD “ He who awakes ” ; “ The Awakener ” (in the Day of Resurrection). BAITU ’L-HAMD (**Jt «*<*). “ The House of Praise.” An expression which occurs in the Traditions (Mishkdt v. 7). When the soul of a child is taken, God says, “ Build a house for my servant in Paradise and call it a house of praise.'' BAITU ’L-HARAM “The Sacred House.’’ A name given to the Meccan mosque, [masjidu ’l-iiaram.] BAITU ’L-HIKMAH «**?). Lit. “ The House of Wisdom.” A term used by Sufis for the heart of the sincere seekers after God. (‘Abdu Y-Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi Terms.) BAITU ’L-LAH (*U\ “The House of God.” A name given to the Meccan mosque, [masjidu ’l-iiaram.] BAITU ’L-MAL (JUJ\ o->). Lit. “ The House of Property.” The public trea¬ sury of a Muslim state, which the ruler is not allowed to use for his personal expenses, but only for the public good. The sources of income are : (1) Zalcdt , or the legal tax raised upon land, personal pro¬ perty, and merchandise, which, after deduct¬ ing the expense of collecting, should be ex¬ pended in the support of the poor and destitute. (2) 1 he liftli of all spoils and booty taken in war. (3) The produce of mines and of treasure-trove. (4) Property for which there is no owner, (5) The Jizyah, or tax levied on unbelievers. ( Hulduah , Arabic ed., vol. i. p. 452.) al-BAITU ’L-MA‘MUR Lit. “ The Inhabited House.” A house in the seventh heaven, visited by Muhammad during the Mi‘raj or night- journey. It is said to be immediately over the sacred temple at Makkali. [mpraj.J BAITU ’L-MIDRAS «**). The House of Instruction. A term (used in a tradition given by Abu Hurairah) for a Jewish school. (Mishkdt, xvii. c. xi.) In Heb. uhiEn run T # * • •• al-BAITU 'L-MUQADDAS (jaAiuJl). “ Xhe Holy House.” A name given to the temple at Jerusalem [al- masjidu ’l-aqsa.] BAITU ’L-QUDS (y-jdM Lit. “ The House of Holiness.” A term use by the Sufis for the heart of the true seeki after God when it is absorbed in meditatioi (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi Terms BAI‘U ’L-WAFA (.uy\ &). Th *ord wafd mranR the performance of a pr< mine, and the Bar'u 7- \Vajd iR a sale with promise to be performed. It is, in fact, pledge in the hands of the pawnee, who not its propritor. nor in he free to make ui of it without the permission of the owne There are different opinions about the legality of this fo-\a of sale, but it is now the common form of mortgage in use in India, where it is usually styled Bai1 bi-'l-wafd. (See Baillie’s Muhammadan Law of Sate, p. 303.) al-BAIYINAH Lit. “ The Evidence.” A title given to the xcvrnth Surah of the Qur’an, in which the word occurs. BA‘L (J**),Heb. “Lord.” The chief deity worshipped by the Syro- Phoenician nations. It is known to the Muhammadans as an idol worshipped in the days of the Prophet Elisha. (See Ghiya^u ’/- Luf/hah.) BALAAM. There is said to be an allusion to Balaam in the Qur’an, Surah vii! 174, “ Recite to them the story of him to whom we gave our signs, and he departed therefrom, and Satan followed him, and he was of those who were beguiled.” The commentary of the Jalalain says that he was a learned man amongst the Israelites, who was requested by the Canaanites to curse Moses at the time when he was about to attack the Jabbdrun or “ giants,” a tribe of the Canaanites. Balaam at first refused to do so but at last yielded, when valuable presents were made to him. (See Tafsiru l-Jalalain, p. 142.) BALAD (a!>). Lit. Any country, district, or town, regarded as an habitation. At-Baiad, the sacred territory of Makkah. A title given to the xcth Surah, in which the word occurs. BALIGH (panish, written in a very legible hand, but a little damaged towards the latter end. It contains two hundred and twenty-two chapters of un¬ equal length, and four hundred and twenty pages ; and is said, in the front, to be tians- lated from the Italian by an Arngonian Moslem named Mostafa de Aranda. There is a preface prefixed to it, wherein the discoverer of the original MS., who was a Chiistian monk called Fra Marino, tells us that, having accidentally met with n writing of Irenaens (among others), wherein he speaks against St. Paul, alleging for his authority the gospel of St. Barnabas, he became exceedingly desi¬ rous to lind this gospel ; and that God, of his mercy, having made him very intimate with Pope bixtus V., one day, as they were toge- BARNABAS BARNABAS 37 ther in that Pope’s library, his Holiness fell asleep, and he, to employ himself, reaching down a book to read, the first he laid his hand on proved to be the very gospel he wanted : overjoyed at the discovery, he scrupled not to hide his prize in his sleeve, and on the Pope's awaking, took leave of him, carrying with him that celestial treasure, by reading of which he became a convert to Muhammadanism. •• This Gospel of Barnabas contains a com¬ plete history of Jesus Christ, from His birth to His ascension, and most of the circum¬ stances of the four real gospels are to be found therein, but many of them turned, and some artfully enough, to favour the Muham¬ madan system. From the design of the whole, and the frequent interpolations of stories and passages, wherein Muhammad is spoken of and foretold by name, as the mes¬ senger of God, and the great prophet who was to perfect the dispensation of Jesus, it appears to be a most bare-faced forgery. One particular I observe therein induces me' to believe it to have been dressed up by a rene¬ gade Christian, slightly instructed in his new religion, and not educated as a Muhammadan (unless the fault lie imputed to the Spanish, or, perhaps, the Italian translator, and to the original compiler). I mean the giving to Muhammad the title of Messiah, and that not once or twice only, but in several places ; whereas, the title of Messiah, or, as the Arabs write it, al-Masifi , i.e. Christ, is appropriated to Jesus in the Qur’an, and is constantly applied by the Muhammadans to him, and never to their own Prophet. The passages produced from the Italian MS. by M. de la Monnoye are to be seen in this Spanish ver¬ sion almost word for word.” The Rev. Joseph White, D.D., in his Bamp- toa Lectures of 1784, gives a translation of those chapters in this spurious Gospel of Bar¬ nabas. which relate to the supposed cruci¬ fixion of Judas in the place of our Lord, and which we insert : — “ Judas came near to the people with whom Jesus Wu6 ; and when He heard the noise He entered into the house where the disciples slept. And God, seeing the fear and danger of llis servant, ordered Gabriel and Michael and Rafail and Azrail to carry Him out of the world. “ And they came in all haste, and bare Hir out of the window which looks towards th south. And they placed Him in the thir heaven, where He will remain blessing Goc in the company of angels, till near the end c the world.” (Chapter 216.) “ And Judas the traitor entered before th rest into the place from which Jesus had jus been taken up. And the disciples wer sleeping. And the Wonderful God acte wonderfully changing Judas into the sam figure and speech with Jesus. “ We believing that it was He, said to hiir Master, whom seekest thou? And he said t them, smiling, T e have forgotten yourselve* since ye do not know Judas Iscariot. 1 1 this ^e soldiery entered; am seeing Judas so like in every respect to Jesufc, laid hands upon him,” &c. (Chapter 217.) “ In which (Chap. 218) is related the passion of Judas the traitor. *• The soldiers afterwards took Judas and bound him, notwithstanding he said with truth to them that he w?as not Jesus. And soldiers mocked him saying, Sir, do not be afraid ; for wre are come to make thee King of Israel ; and we have bound thee, because we know thou hast refused the kingdom. And Judas said, Ye have lost your senses. “ I came to show you Jesus, that ye might take Him ; and ye have bound me. who am your guide. The soldiers lost their patience, hearing this, and they began to go with him, striking and buffeting him, till they reached Jerusalem,” &c. &c. (Chapter 218.) “They carried him to Mount Calvary, where they executed criminals, and crucified him, stripping him asked for the greater ignominy. Then he did nothing but cry out, 0 my God, why hast thou forsaken, me, that I should die unjustly, when the real male¬ factor hath escaped ? I say in truth that he was so like in person, figure, and gesture to Jesus, that as many as knew Him, believed firmly that it was He, except Peter: for which reason many left his doctrine, believing that it had been false ; as He had said that He should not die till the end of the wTorld. “ But those who stood firm were oppressed with grief, seeing him die -whom they under¬ stood to be Jesus : not recollecting what He had told them. And in company with His mother, they were present at his death, weep¬ ing continually. And by means of Joseph Abariniatheas (sic), they obtained from the president the body of Judas. And they took him down from the cross, burying him with much lamentation in the new’ sepulchre of Joseph; having wrapped him up in linen and precious ointments.” (Chapter 219.) “ They all returned, each man to his house : and he who writetli, with James and John, went with the mother of Jesus to Nazareth. And the disciples, who did not fear God with truth, went by night and stole the body of Judas, and hid it ; spreading a report that He (i.e. Jesus) had risen again, from whence sprung great confusion among the people. “ And the High Priest commanded, under pain of anathema, that no one should talk of him : and on this account raised a great per¬ secution, banishing some, tormenting others, and even stoning some to death : because it was not in the power of anyone to be silent on this subject. And then came news to Nazareth, that Jesus had risen again. And he that writeth desired the mother of Jesus to leave off her lamentation. And Mary said, Let us go to Jerusalem, to see if it is truth. If I see Him I shall die content. (Chapter 220). “The Virgin returned to Jerusalem with him that writeth, and James and John, the same day that the decree of the High Priest on me out. And as she feared God, though she knew 38 BARNABAS BARZAKH the command was unjust, she entreated those who talked with her not to speak of her Son. Who can say, how we were then affected? God, who knows the heart of man, knows that between the grief for the death of Judas, whom we understood to be Jesus, and the pleasure of seeing him risen again, we almost expired. And the angels who were the guardians of Mary went up to heaven the third day, and told Jesus what was passing. And He, moved with compassion for Ilis mother, entreated of God that He might be seen by His disciples. And the Compas¬ sionate God ordered His four favourite angels to place Him within His own house, and to guard Him three days ; that they and they only might see Him, who believed in Ilis doc¬ trine. Jesus descended, surrounded with light, into the house of Ilis mother, where were the two sisters, Martha and Mary, and Lazarus, and he that writeth, and John and James, and Peter. And when they saw Him, they fell with their faces on the earth as if dead. And Jesus lifted them up, saying. Fear not, for 1 am your Master. Lament not honceforth, for I am alive. They were asto¬ nished at seeing Jesus, because they thought Him dead. And Mary weeping said, Tell me, my Son, why, if God gave Thee power to raise up the dead, did He consent that Thou shouldest die, with so much reproach and shame to Thy relations and friends, and so much hurt to Thy doctrine, leaving us all in desolation? Jesus replied, embracing His mother, Believe me. for I tell thee the truth, I have not been dead ; for God has reserved Me for the end of the world. In saying this He desired the angels to manifest themselves, and to tell how He had passed through every¬ thing. At the instant they appeared like four suns ; and all present prostrated themselves on the ground, overcome by the presence of the angels. And Jesus gave to all of them something to cover themselves with, that they might be able to hear the angels speak. “ And Jesus said to His mother, These are the Ministers of God. Gabriel knows His secrets ; Michael fights with His enemies ; Asratiel will cite all to judgment; and Azrael receives the souls. And the holy angels told how they had, by the command of God, taken up Jesus, and transformed Judas, that he might suffer the punishment which he wished to bring on Jesus. And he that writeth said, Is it lawful for me to ask of Thee, in the same manner as when thou wast in the world? And Jesus answered, Speak. Barnabas, what thout wishest. “ And he said, I wish that Thou wouldest tell me how God, being so compassionate, could afflict us so much, in giving us to understand that Thou wast he that suffered, for we have been very near dying ? And Thou being a prophet, why did He suffer Thee to fall under disgrace, by (apparently) placing Thee on a cross, and between two robbers? Jesus answered. Believe Me. Bar¬ nabas, let the fault be ever so small God chastiseth it with much punishment. And as my mother and faithful disciples loved me with a little earthly love, God chastised that love by this grief ; that He might not chastise it in the other world. And though I w'as innocent, yet as they called Me God, and His Son, that the devils might not mock Me on the Day of Judgment. He has chosen that I should be mocked in this world. •• And this mocking shall last till the holy Messenger of God (i.e. Muhammad) shall come, who shall undeceive all believers. And then He said, Just art Thou, 0 God ! and to Thee only bolongeth the honour and glory, with worship, for ever.” (Chapter 221.) •* And then He said, Barnabas, that thou by all means write my gospel, relating every¬ thing which has happened in the world con¬ cerning Me ; and let it be done exactly ; in order that the faithful may be undeceived, knowing the truth. He that writeth said, Master, I will do it as Thou commandest me, God willing : but I did not see all that hap¬ pened with Judas. Jesus answered, Here stand Peter and John, who saw it, and will relate it to thee. “ And Ho told James and John to call the seven apostles who were absent, and Nico- demus, and Joseph Abarimatheas (sic), and some of the seventy-two disciples. When they were come, they did eat with Him ; and on the third day He commanded them all to go to the mount of Olives with Ilis mother: because He was to return to heaven. All the apostles and disciples went, except twenty-five of the seventy-two, who had fled to Damascus with fear. And exactly at mid-day, while they were all in prayer, Jesus came with many angels (blessing God), with so much bright¬ ness that they all bent their faces to the ground. And Jesus raised them up, saying, Fear not your Master, who comes to take leave of you ; and to recommend you to God our Lord, by the mercies received from His bounty : and be He with you ! “ And upon this He disappeared with the angels: all of us remainirg amazed at the great brightness in which he left us.” (Chapter 222). al-BARR(^J^). One of the ninety- nine special names of God. In its ordinary sense it means “pious,” or “good." As applied to God, it means “ The Beneficent One.” BARTER. [bai‘.] BARZAKH (1) A thinp that intervenes between any two things; a bar; an obstruction; or a thing thav makes a separation between two things. In which sense it is used in the Quran in two places. Surah xxv. 55. “ He hath put an interspace between them (i.e. the two seas), and a barrier which it is forbidden them to pass. Surah lv. 20, “ Yet between them (the two seaj) is a barrier .” (2) The interval between the present life and that which is to come. See Qur’an, Surah xxiii. 00, “And say. My Lord, I seek rofuge with Thee from the inciting" of the devils, and I seek refuge with Thee from their BAZAQ 39 ba‘? presence. Until when death conies to any one of them, he says, My Lord ! send me back (to life), if haply I may do right in that which I have left. Not so 1 A, mere word that he speaks ! But behind .them there is barzafch (a' bar), until the day when they shall be raised. And when the trumpet shall be blown, there shall be no relation between them on that day, nor shall they beg of each other then.” Upon this verse the commentator Baizawi says : “ Barzafch is an intervening state (hcPil, ‘ a barrier ’) bet ween death and the Day of Judgment, and whoever dies enters it.’ The commentator Husain remarks : “ Barzafch is a partition (mdnii') between the living and the Day of Judgment, namely, the grave in which they will remain until the resurrection.” The commentators al-Jalalain speak of it as a hajiz, or intervening state between death and judgment. ‘Abdu ’r-Razziiq in his Dic¬ tionary of Technical Terms of the Sufis (Sprenger’s Edition), gives a similar defini¬ tion. The word is employed by Muhammadan writers in at least two senses, some using it for the place of the dead, the grave, and others for the state of departed souls between death and judgment. The condition of believers in the grave is held to be one of undisturbed rest, but that of unbe¬ lievers one of torment ; for Muhammad is related to have said, “ There are appointed for the grave of the unbeliever ninety-nine serpents to bite him until the Day of Resur¬ rection.” (Mishfcat, i. c. 5, p. 12.) The word seems generally to be used in the sense of Hades, for every person who dies is said to enter al- Barzafch. BA‘S (e-A>). Lit. “ Raising.” (1) The Day of Resurrection. (2) The office of a messenger or prophet. BASE MONEY. The sale of one pure dirham and two base ones in exchange for two pure dirhams and one base one is lawful. By two base ones ( ghalatain ), are to be understood such as pass amongst merchants but are rejected at the public treasury. (Hidayah, vol. ii. 560.) al-BASIR One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It fre¬ quently occurs in the Qur’an, and means “ The All-seeing One.” BASIRAH (i^-oi). Lit. “ Penetra¬ tion.” The sight of the heart as distinguished from the sight of the eye (Ba?arah or Basar ). A term used by theologians to express that enlightenment of the heart “ whereby the spiritual man can understand spiritual things with as much certainty as the natural man can see objects with the sight of. the eye.” The word occurs twice in the Qur'an, Surah xii. 108, “ This is my way ; I cry unto God, resting on cle/ir evidence," Surah lxxv. 14, “ A man shall be evidence against himself.” al-BASIT (la-Ll\). one 0f thg ninety-nine special names of God, It means “ He who spreads, or stretches out, and occurs in the Qur an, Surah xiii. 15. As applied to God, it means, “ He who dispenses riches,” &c. BASTARD 0»jH waladu ’ z-zind ). An illegitimate child has, according to Mu¬ hammadan law, no legal father, and conse¬ quently the law does not allow the father to interfere with his illegitimate child, even for the purposes of education. He cannot inherit the property of his father, but he is acknow¬ ledged as the rightful heir of his mother (Baillie’s Digest, p. 432). The evidence of a bastard is valid, because he is innocent with respect to the immorality of his parents ; but the Imam Malik maintains that his testimony is not to be accepted with respect to a charge of whoredom. ( Hidayah , vol. ii. 692.) BATHING. The Arabic term for ordinary bathing is gliasl, and that for the religious purification of the whole body ghusl. In all large mosques, and in most respectable dwellings in Muhammadan coun¬ tries, there are bathing-rooms erected, both for the ordinary purposes of bathing and for the religious purification. An account of the legal purification will be found in the article ghusl. Although purifications and bathing form so essential a part of the Muslim religion, cleanliness does not distinguish Muhammadans, who are generally in this respect a striking contrast to their Hindu fellow subjects in India. According to the saying of Muhammad, decency should be observed in bathing, and the clothes from the waist downwards should not be takenoff at such times. (Mishfcat, ii. c. iv.) BATIL (J^b). That which is false in doctrine. al-BAJIN (elAJl). (1) One of the ninety-nine special names of God. It means “ that which is hidden or concealed,” “ The Hidden One,” or “ He that knows hidden things.” (2) A term used in theology for that which is hidden in its meaning, in contradistinction to that which is evident. , BATUL (Jyq). Lit. “A shoot or offset of a palm-tree cut off from its mother tree ; ” “ a virgin v (as cut off or withheld from men). The term al-Batul is applied to Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, because she was separated from the other women of her age by her excellences. Heb. Bethulah. *’ BA‘US (v£^c^). A Syriac word, Nmyi (*•«■ “petition,* prayer”), ▼ ▼ which, in the dictionary al-Qdmus, is said to mean the Christian Easter ; and also prayers for rain, or the Istisqd of the Christians. (Majmu 'l-Bihar, p. 101.) BAZAQ orrBAZIQ (j*^). A pro¬ hibited liquor. The juice of the grape boiled 40 BEARD until a quantity less than two-thirds evapo¬ rates. BEARD. Arabic lihyah or zaqan. The beard is regarded by Muslims as the badge of the dignity of manhood. The Prophet is related to have said, “ Do the opposite of the polytheists and let your beard grow long.” ( Mishkdt , xx. iv.) And the growing of a beard is said to be Fit rah, or one of those customs which have been observed by every Prophet, [fitrah.] BEAUTY, Female. “The maiden, whose loveliness inspires the most impas¬ sioned expression in Arabic poetry and prose, is celebrated for her slender figure ; she is like the cane among plants, and is elegant as the twig of the oriental willow. Her face is like the full moon, presenting the strongest contrast to the colour of her hair, which (to preserve the nature of the simile just em¬ ployed) is of the deepest hue of night, and descends to the middle of her back. A rosy blush overspreads the centre of each cheek ; and a npole is considered an additional charm. The Arabs, indeed, are particularly extrava¬ gant in their admiration of this natural beauty- spot, which, according to its place, is com¬ pared to a globule of ambergris upon a dish of alabaster, or upon the surface of a ruby. The eyes of the Arab beauty are intensely black, large, and long, of the form of an almond ; they are full of brilliancy ; but this is softened by a lid slightly depressed, and by long silken lashes, giving a tender*and languid expression, which is full of enchantment, and scarcely to be improved by the adventitious aid of the black border of the kuhl ; for this the lovely maiden adds rather for the sake of fashion than necessity, having what the Arabs term natural kuhl. The eye-brows are thin and arched, the forehead is wide, and fair as ivory ; the nose straight, the mouth small ; the lips are of a brilliant red, and the teeth “like pearls set in coral.” The forms of the bosom are compared to two pomegranates ; the waist is slender ; the hips are wide and large; the feet and hands small ; the fingers tapering, and their extremities dyed with the deep orange-red tint impa-rted by the lea\es of hinna. The following is the most complete analysis of Arabian beauty, given by an unknown author, quoted by Al-Ishaqi : — “ Four things in a woman should be black : the hair of the head, the eve-brows, the eye¬ lashes, and the dark part of the eyes ; four white : the complexion of the skin, the white of the eyes, the teeth, and the legs ; four red . the tongue, the lips, the middle of the cheeks, and the gumz ; four round: the head, the neck, the fore-anns, and the ankles; four long : tho back, the fingers, the arms, and the legs: four wide : the forehead, tho eyes, the bosom, and the hips ; four yine: the eye-brows, the nose, the lips, and the fingers ; four thick: the lower part of the back, the thighs, the calves of the legs, and the knees ; four small ^ the ears, the breasts, the hands, and the feet. (Lane’s Arabian Nights, voL i. p. 25.) BELIEVERS BEGGING. It is not lawful for any person possessing sufficient fcH»d for a dav and night to beg (lJurru 'l- Mukhtar, p. 108), and it is related that the Prophet said : “ Acts of begging are scratches and wounds with which a man wounds his own face.” “ It is better for a man to take a rope and bring in a bundle of sticks to sell than to beg.” “ A man who continues to beg will appear in the Day of Judgment without any tlesh on his face.” ( Mishkdt , Book vi. chap, v.) BEINGS. According to Muham¬ madan belief, there are three different species of created intelligent beings : (1) Angels ( Malaikah ), who are said to be created of light ; (2) Genii (Jinn), who are created of fire; (3) Mankind (Insan), created of earth. These intelligent beings are called Zawu 7- • Ugul , or •• Rational beings,” whilst unintelli¬ gent beings” are called Ghair Xawi l-'Uqul. II inf a udn i- Xu t iq is also a term used for rational beings (who can speak), and JIagau'dni-i Aja in for all irrational creatures. [JINX.] BELIEVERS. The terms used for believers are — Mu'nun, pi. Mu'minun : and Muslim, pi. Mnslimun. The ditTerence ex¬ pressed in these two words is explained in the Traditions, in a Hadis given in the Sahih of Muslim (p. 27), where it is recorded by ‘Umar, as having been taught by Muhammad, that a Mu' min is one who has imdn , or “ faith ;” Faith being a sincere belief in God, His angels. His inspired books. His prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the predestination of good and evil ; and that a Muslim is one who is resigned and obedient to the will of God. and bears witness that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is His Apostle, and is steadfast in prayer, and gives zakat, or “ legal alms,” and fasts in the month of Ramazan, and makes a pilgrimage to the Temple (Bait) at Makkah, il he have the means. The rewards in store for the believer are as follows (see Suratu 7- Bagarah , i iirak ii. 76) •• Thev who have believed and done the things that be right, they shall be the inmate* of Paradise, — therein to abide for ever." Surat ' n-Nisd , Surah iv. 60 : — ‘‘Those who have believed, and done the things that nre right, we will bring them into gardens neath which the rivers How — therein to abide eternally ; therein shall they have wives of stainless purity: and we will bring them into shadowing shades. Suratu '/-A'rdf, Surah vii. 40: “Those who have believed and done the things which are right, (we will lay on no one a burden bevond his power)— these shall be inmates of Paradise: forever shall they abide therein ; m ,\nd wiU we remove whatever rancour waa in their bosoms : rivers shall roll at their feet ; and thev shall say, • Praise be to God who hath guided us hither! Me had not been guided had not God guided ns ! Of a surety BELLS BESTIALITY 41 the Apostles of our Lord came to us with truth.’ And a voice shall cry to them, ‘ This is Paradise, of which, as the meed of your works, ye are made heirs.’ *• And the inmates of Paradise shall cry to the inmates of the Fire, “ Now have we found what our Lord promised us to be true. Have ye too found what your Lord promised you to be true?’ And they shall answer. ‘Yes.’ And a Herald shall proclaim between them : ‘ The curse of God be upon the evil doers. “ Wlio turn men aside from the wav of God, and seek to make it crooked, and who believe not in the life to come ! ' “And between them shall be a partition: and on the tv all al-A-raf. shall be men who will know all, by their tokens, and they shall cry to the inmates of Paradise, ‘ Peace be on you ! ’ but they shall not yet enter it, although they long to do so. “And when their eyes are turned towards the inmates of the Fire, tliey shall say, -0 our Lord! place us not with the offending people.’ “ And they who are upon al-ATiif shall cry to those whom they shall know by their tokens. ‘ Your amassings and your pride have availed you nothing. “ ‘ Are these they on whom ye sware God would not bestow’ mercy ? Enter ye into Paradise ! where no fear shall be upon you, neither shall ve put to grief.’ “ And the inmates of the fire shall cry to the inmates of Paradise: ‘ Pour upon us some water, or of the refreshments God hath given you?’ They shall they, ‘Truly God hath forbidden both to unbelievers.’’ For a further descriptions of the Muham¬ madan future state the reader is referred to the article paraoi-k. which deals more directly with the sensual character of the heaven supposed to be in store for the believer in the mission of Muhammad. The following is a description of the believer which s given in the (Qur’an, Sh rata ' l-Mnminhi , the xxnird Surah, v. 1 : — “ Happy now the Believers, Mho bumble themselves in their prayer. And who keep aloof from vain words, And who are doers of alms-deeds (zaLdt), And who restrain their appetites, (Save with their wives, or the slaves whom their right hands possess; for in that case they shall be free from blame: But they whose desires reach further than this are transgressors :) And who tend well their trusts and their covenants, And who keep them strictly 'to their prayers : These shall be the heritors, who shall in¬ herit Paradise, to abide therein for ever.” BELLS. [naqus.J BENEFICE, [waqf.] BENEFICENCE (Aral »ic i^w- samahah ) is commended by Muhammad as one of the evidences of faith. ( Mishkdt , Book i. c. i. part 3.) Amr ibn ‘Abaratah relates: “I came to the Prophet and said, ‘0 Prophet, what is Islam ? ’ And he said, ‘ It is purity of speech and hospitality.’ I then said, ‘ And what is faith ? ’ And he said, * Patience and bene¬ ficence. " BENJAMIN. Hob. Arabic Bitiydmin. The youngest of the children of Jacob. He is not men¬ tioned by name in the Quriin, but he is referred to in Surah xii. Gi), “ And when they , entered in unto Joseph, he took his brother \ (i.e. Benjamin) to stay with him. He said Verily I am thy brother, then take not that ill which they have been doing. And when he had eq lipped them w-ith their equipment, he placed the drinking-cup in his brother’s pack,” ). “ The countries of Islam.” A term used in Muhammadan law for Muslim countries. It is synonymous with the term Diiru ’1-Isiam. [DARU ’l ISLAM.] BILAL The first Mu'azzin or callor to prayer appointed by Muhammad. He was an Abyssinian slave who had been ransomed by Abu Bakr. He was tall, dark, and gaunt, with negro features and bushy hair. Muhammad honoured and distinguished him as the “ first fruits of Abyssinia.” He survived the Prophet. BILQlS The Queen of Saba’, who visited Solomon and became one of his queens. An account of her, as it is given in the Qur'an, will bo found in the story of King Solomon, [solomon.] BINT LABUN (erJ o~4). “ The daughter of a milk-giver." A female camel two years old ; so called because the mother is then suckling another foal. 'I he proper age for a camel given in zakat , or ** legal alms,” for camels from thirty-six in number up to forty-five. BINT MAKHAZ ^). “ The daughter of a pregnant.” A female camel passed one year ; so called because the mother is again pregnant. This is the proper age for a camel given in zuLdt, oi “ alms,” for camels from twenty-five in numbei up to thirty-five. BIOGRAPHERS OF MUHAM¬ MAD. Although the Qur’an may be said to be the key-stone to the biography of Muham¬ mad, yet it contains but comparatively few references to the personal history of the Pro¬ phet. The Traditions, or form the chief material for all biographical histories. [tradition.] The first who attempted to compile an account of Muhammad in the form of a history, was az-Zuhri, who died a h. 124, and whose work, no longer extant, is mentioned by Ibn Khallikan. The eai Host biographical writers whose works are extant are— Ibn Ishaq, A.H 131; Al-Waqidi, a.h. [ 207 ; Ibn Hisham, a.h. 218; Al-BukMri (history), a.h. 256; At-Tabari, a.h. 310. Amongst more recent biographies, the most noted are those by Ibnu ’l-Asir, a.h. 630, and IsmaTl Abu ’1-fida’, a.h. 732. Abu ’l-fida’s work was translated into Latin by John Gagnier, Professor of Arabic at Oxford, a.d. 1723, and into English by the Rev. VV. Murray, Episcopal clergymen at Duffus in Scotland, and published (without date) at Elgin. The first life of Muhammad published in English is that by Dean Prideaux, which first ap¬ peared in 1723, and afterwards passed through several editions. Dr. Sprenger commenced a life of Muhammad in English, and printed the first part at Allahabad, India, a.d. 1851 ; but it was never completed. The learned author afterwards published the whole of his work in German, at Berlin, 1861). The only com¬ plete life of Muhammad in English which has any pretension to original research, is the well-known Life of Mahomet, by Sir William Muir, LL.D. (First Edition, four vols., London, 1858-61 ; Second Edition, one vol., London, 1877). BIOGRAPHY. A Dictionary of Biography is called eU—l asmau 'r-rijdl (Jit. “ The Names of Men ”). The most celebrated of these is, amongst Muslims, that by Ibn Khallikan, which has always been considered a work of the highest importance for the civil and literary history of the Mu¬ hammadan people. Ibn Khallikan died a.h. 681 (a.d. 1282), but his dictionary received numerous additions from subsequent writers. It has been translated into English by Mac- Guckin De Slane (Paris, 1843). BIRDS. It is commonly believed by the Muhammadans that all kinds of birds, and many, if not all, beasts, have a language by which they communicate their thoughts to each other, and in the Qur’an (Surah xxvii. 16) it is stated that King Solomon was taught the language of birds. BI’R ZAMZAM (ryj /i). The well of Zamzam. [zam-zam ] BI'R MA'CNAH (ii,~ A). The well of Ma’iinah. A celebrated spot four marches from Makkah, where a party of Muhammad’s followers were slain by the Banu *Amir and Banu Sulaim. He professed to have received a special message from heaven regarding these martyrs, which runs thus : — “ Acquaint our people that we have met our Lord. He is well pleased with us, and we are well pleased with Him.’’ It is a remarkable verse, as having for some reason or other been cancelled, and removed from the Qur’an. (Muir’s Lift of Mahomet , voL iii. p. 207.) BIRTH, Evidence of. According to the Imam Abu Hanifah, if a married woman should claim to be tho mother of a child, her claim is not to be valid unless the birth of of the child is attested by the testimony of one u'oman. But in the case of a father, maa- B1SHARAH BRIBERY 43 much as the claim of parentage is a matter which relates purely to himself, his testimony alone is to be accepted. The testimony of the midwife alone is suf¬ ficient with respect to birth , but with regaid to parentage , it is established by the fact of the mother of the child being the wife of the husband. If the woman be in her ‘ iddah [‘iddah] from a complete divorce, the testimony of the midwife is not sufficient with respect to birth, but the evidence of two men. or of one man and tw.o women, is requisite. (Hamilton s Ilidayah, vol. iii. p. 134.) It is also ruled that it is not lawful for a person to give .evidence to anything which he has not seen, except in the cases of birth, death , and marriage. (Vol. ii. G76.) BISHARAH [bushka.] Bl-SHAR* (?/• 0>)- Lit. “ With- out the law’.’* A term applied to those mystics ■who totally disregard the teaching of the Qur'an. Antinomians. [sufi.] BISMILLAII ,*~>): Lit. “ In the name of God.” An ejaculation frequently used at the commencement of any under¬ taking. There are two forms of the Bis- millah : — 1. Bi-'smi ’ llahi ' r-rahmdni ’ r-rahim , i.e. “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.” This is used at the commencement of meals, putting on new clothes, beginning any new work, and at the commencement of books. It occurs at the head of every chapter or surah in the Qur’an, with the exception of the ixth (i.e. the Siiratu ’ 'l- Bara' ah ). 2. Bi-'smi 'llahi 'llahi ' l-akbar , i.e. “In the name of God, God the Most Great.” Used at the time of slaughtering of animals, at the com¬ mencement of a battle, &c., the attribute of mercy being omitted on such occasions. The formula Bi-'smi 'llahi 'r-rahmani V- rahim is of Je\ ish origin. It was in the first instance taught to the Quraish by Umaiyah of Ta’if, the poet, who was a contemporary but sotrewhat older than, Muhammad, and who, during his mercantile journeys into Arabia Petraea and Syria, had made himself acquainted with the sacred books and doc¬ trines of Jews and Christians. ( Kitabu '/- Aghani, 16, Delhi; quoted by Rodwell.) BIZA’AH (£cLi>). A share in a mercantile adventure. Property entrusted to another to be employed in trade. BLACK STONE, [al-hajaru ’l- A8WAD.] BLASPHEMY. Arabic ytf leufr. Lit. “ to hide ” (the truth). It includes a denial of any of the essential principles of Islam. A Muslim convicted of blasphemy is sen¬ tenced to death in Muhammadan countries. [apostasy.] BLEEDING. Arabic hijd- tnah. The two great cures recommended by Muhammad wore blood-letting and drinking honey ; and he taught that it was unlucky to be bled on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday, the most lucky day being Tuesday, and the most lucky dato the seventeenth of the month. (Sfish/cdt , xxi. c. 1.) BLIND, The. Arabic A'md, pL ‘ Umydn. It is not incumbent upon a blind man to engage in Jihad, or a religious war. And, according to the Imam Abu Hanlfah, the evidence of a blind person is not admissible, but the Imam Zufar maintains that such evidence is lawful when it affects a matter in which hearsay prevails. Sales and purchases made by a blind person are lawful. (Hamil¬ ton's iiiddyah , vol. ii., pp. 141, 402, 682.) BLOOD. The sale of blood is unlawful. (Hamilton’s Ilidayah, vol. ii. p. 428.) BLOOD, The Avenger of. [qisas.] BLOOD, Issue of. [istihazah.] BOASTING. Arabic mufd - kharah. Muhammad is related to have said, “ I swear by God, a tribe must desist from boasting of their forefathers ; for they are nothing more than coals from hell-fire (i.e. they were idolaters) ; and if you do not leave off boasting, verily you will be more hateful in the sight of God than a black-beetle. Man¬ kind are all the sons of Adam, and Adam was of the earth." ( Mishlcat , xxi!. c. 13.) BOOKS OF MOSES, [taueat.] BOOKS, Stealing. The hand of a thief is not to be cut off for stealing a book, whatever bo the subject of which it treats, because the object of the theft can only be the contents of the book, and not the book itself. But yet, it is to be observed, the hand is to be cut off for stealing “ an account book,” because in this case it is evident that the object of the theft is not the contents of the book, but the paper and material of which the bbok is/made. (Hamilton’s Ilidayah, vol. ii. 1)2.) BOOTS, [shoes.] BREACH OF TRUST. Arabic khiyfinali. The punishment of amputation of the hand is not inflicted for a breach of trust. And if a guest steal the pro¬ perty of his host v hilst he is staying in his house, the hand is not cut off. Breach of trust in Muslim law being a less offence than ordinary theft, the punishment for breach of trust is left to the discretion of the judge. (Hamilton’s Ilidayah. vol. ii. pp. 93-102.) BRIBERY (Arabic rishwah ) is not mentioned in the Qur an. In the Fatdwa ‘ Alamgiri it is stated that presents to magis¬ trates are of various kinds ; for example, if a present be made in order to establish a friend¬ ship, it is lawful; but if it be given to influence the decision of the judge in the donor's favour, it is unlawful. It is also said, if a present be made to a judge from a sense of 44 bu‘as BURIAL fear, it is lawful to give it, but unlawful to accept it. (Hamilton’s lliduuah , vol. iii. p.332.) BU‘AS, Battle of. Arabic ^\jo Vf- ffurb Bu’dji. A battle fought between the Bauu Khazraj and Bauu Aus, about six years before the flight of Muhammad from Makkah. BUHTAN (0U untries. (.^ee Arabian Nii/ /its, Lane's Modern JA/i/pt tans, bhaw’s Tiuve/s in Burburtj.) [uikial.J al- BUKHARI A short title given to the well-know n collection of Suam traditions by Abu "Abdu llah Muham¬ mad i! n lsmu-ii ibn ii rahim ibn al-Mughirah al-Ju‘U al-Bukh..n. who was born at Bukhara, a. li. 11)4 (a. l>. t>iO), and died at the village *.t Khartang near fcumarqnnd, a.ii. 25G (a.d. biU). liis compilation comprises upwards of 7,0t0 traditions of the acts and sayings of the Prophet, selected from a mass of bbU.OOO. llis boo*, is called the fralji/i of al-Bukhdri , and is said to have been the result of sixteen years labour. It is said that he was so anxious to record only trustworthy traditions that he pei formed a prostration in worship before the Almighty before he recorded each tradition. BUK1ITU NASSAR “Nebuchadnezzar.” It is thought by Jalalu ’d-din that there is a reference to his aimy taking Jerusalem in the Qur'an, Surah xvii. 0, “And when the thieat lor the last (crime) came (to be indicted, we sent an enemy) to harm your faces, and to enter the temple as they entered it the first time.” The author of the (eldmus says that BnHt is “ son,” and Naffar, “ an idol,” i.e. the son of Nas?ar.” BOLAS (c-V). “Despair.” The name of one of the chambers of hell, where the proud will diink of the yellow water of the infernal regions. ( Mi*hkdt . xxii. c. 20.) BURAQ Lit. “ The brieht one.” The animal upon which Muhammad is said to have performed the nocturnal journey called Mi'ru/. He was a white animal, be¬ tween the size of a mule and on ass, having two wings. (Majhnrn 7- Bihar, p. 80.) Mu- liarnmad’s conception of this mysterious animal is not unlike the Assyrian gryphon, of which Mr. Layard gives a sketch, [mi raj.] the Assyrian gryphon (Layard ii. 459). BURGLARY is punished as an ordinary theft, namely by the amputation of the hand, but it is one of the niceties of Mu¬ hammadan law. according to the Ilanafi code, that if a thief break through the wall of the house, and enter therein, and take the pro¬ perly, and deliver it to an accomplice standing at the entrance of the breach, amputation of the hand is not incurred by either ef the parties, because the thief who entered the house did not carry out the property. ( l lido tj ah , vol. ii. 103.) BUKIAL OF THE DEAD Jinazah or Junuzah). The tcim Jandzah is used both for the bier and fer the Muhammadan funeral service. The burial service is founded upon the practice cf 31uhammad. and \nries but little in different countries although the ceremonies connected with the funeral proces¬ sion are diversified. In Egypt and B khuru. for instance, the male relations and friends cf the deceased precede the corpse, whilst the female mourners fellow behind. In India and Afghan¬ istan, wmicn do not usually attend funerals, and the friends and relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier. There is a tradition amongst seme Muhammadans that no one should precede the corpse, as the angels go before. Euneial processions in Afghanistan are usually very simple in their anange- ments, and aro said to be more in accordance with the practice of the Prophet, than those of E.ypt and Turkey. It is consider* d a very meritorious act to carry the bier, and four from among tbe near relat i* ns, every now and then relieved by an equal number, carry it on their shoulders. L nlike our Christian custom of walking slowly to the grave, the Muhammadans carry their dead quickly to the place of inteiment; for Muhammad is related to have said, that it is good to carry the dead quickly to the grave, to cause the righteous person to arrive soon at happiness, BURIAL BURIAL 45 and if he be a bad man, it is well to put wickedness away from one’s shoulders. l'U- neral3 should always be attended on foot ; for it is said that Muhammad on one occasion rebuked his people for following on horse¬ back. "Have you no shame?” said he, “ since God's angels go on foot, and you go upon the backs of quadrupeds ? " It is a highly meritorious act to attend a funeral, whether it be that of a Muslim, a Jew. or a Christian. There are, however, two traditions which appear to mark a cnange of feeling on the part of the Prophet of Arabia towards the Jews and Christians. " A bier passed by the Prophet, and he stood up : and it was said to the Prophet, this is the bier of a Jew. * It is the holder of a soul.’ he replied, * from which we should take warning and fear.”’ This rule is said to have been abrogated, for, •• on one one occasion the Prophet sitting on the road when a bier passed, and the Prophet disliked that the bier of a Jew should be higher than his head, and he therefore stood up.” (Mish- kat , v. c. v.) Notwithstanding these con¬ tradictory traditions, we believe that in all countries Muhammadans are wont to pay great respect to the funerals of both Jews and Christians. The Muhammadan funerdl service is not recited in the graveyard, it being too polluted a place for so sacred an office: but either in a mosque, or in some open space near the dwelling of the deceased person or the grave¬ yard. The owner of the corpse, i.e. the nearest relative, is the proper person to recite the service; but it is usually said by the family Imam, or the Qazl. The following is the order of the service: — Some one present calls out, — “ Here begin the prayers for the dead.” Then those present arrange themselves in three, five, or seven rows opposite the corpse, with their faces Qiblah- wards (i.e. towards Ma kali). The Imam stands in front of the ranks opposite the head (the Shrahs stand opposite the loins of a man) of the corpse, if it be that of male, or the waist, if it be that of a female. The whole company having taken up the Uiydm, or standing position, the Imam recites the Xiyak. “ I purpose to perform prayers to God for this dead person. consisting of four Takhirs” Then placing his hands to the lobes of his ears, he says the first Takhir. “ God is great 1 ” Then folding his hands, the right hand placed upon the left, below the navel, he recites the Sub ha n :— “ Holiness i o Thee, 0 God, And to Thee bo praise. Great is Thy Name. Great is Thy Greatness. Great is Thy Praise. There is no deity but Thee.” Then follows the second Takb'.r : _ “ Gcd is gieal ! ” Then the burud:— “ 0 ,9od’ ll0Ve rati-cy on Muhammad and upon his descendants. *«. Thou didst bestow I I t mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compas¬ sion, and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants. “ Thou art praised, and Thou art great ! « 0 God, bless Muhammad and his de¬ scendants. as Thou didst bless and didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abra¬ ham and upon his descendants.” Then follows the third Takhir: — “ God is great ! ” After which the following prayer (Z)w‘d) is recited : — •• 0 God, forgive our living and our dead and those of us who are present, and those who are absent, and our children, and our full grown persons, our men and our women. 0 God. those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep alive in Islam, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in the Faith.” Then follows the fourth Takhir: — God is great ! ” Turning the head round to the right, he says : — •• Peace and mercy be to Thee.” Turning the head round to the left, he \ s "Peace and mercy be to Thee.” The T ikhlr is recited by the Imam aloud, but the Sithhan, the Sci/am , the Lurud. and the L>ird , are recited by the Imam and the people in a low voice. flie people then seat themselves on the ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer in behalf of the deceased's soul, and after¬ wards addressing the relatives they say, " It is the decree of God.” To which the chief mourner replies, *• I am pleased with the will of God. He then gives permission to the people to retire by saying, •• There is permis¬ sion to depart.” Those who wisn to return to their houses do so at this time, and the rest proceed to the grave. The corpse is then placed on its back in the grave, with the head to the north and feet to the south, the face being turned towards Makkak. The persons who place the coi pse in the grave repeat the following sentence : We commit thee to earth in the name of Gcd and in the religion of the Pro¬ phet.” The bands of the shroud having been loosed, the recess, which is called the /a fid, is closed in with unburnt bricks and the grave filled in with earth. [grave.] In some countries it is usual to recite verse 57 cf the xxth Surah cf the Qur’an as the clods of earth arc thrown into the grave: but this practice is objected to by the Wahhabis, and by many learned divines. The verse is as follows : — “ From it (the earth) have We (God) created you. and unto it will We return vou. and out of it will We bring vou forth the second time.” After the burial, the people offer a fatihah (r.t. the first chapter cf the Qur’an) in the name of the rkveo* d. and again when they have proceeded about forty paces from the ?rflvc °ftpr arMher fatihah : for at this 46 BURIAL BURIAL juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkir and Nakir examine the deceased as to his faith, [punishments ok the grave.] After this, food is distributed to beggars and reli¬ gious mendicants as a propitiatory offering to God, in the name of the deceased person. If the grave be for the body of a wcman, it should be to the height of a man’s chest, if for a man, to the height of the waist. At the bottom of the grave the recess is made on the side to receive the corpse, which is called the la/ud or Uihd. The dead are seldom interred in coffins, although they are not pro¬ hibited. To build tombs with stones or burnt bricks, or to write a verse of the Qur’an upon them, is forbidden in the Hadis ; but large stone and brick tombs are common to all Muham¬ madan countries, and very frequently they bear inscriptions. On the third day after the burial of the dead, it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave, and to recite selections from the Qur’an. Those who can afford to pay Maulavis, employ these learned men to recite the whole of the Qur’an at the graves of their deceased relatives; and, the Qur’an is divided into sections to admit of its being recited by the several Mauiavis at once. During the days of mourning the relatives abstain from wear¬ ing any article of dress of a bright colour, and their soiled garments remain unchanged. A funeral procession in Egypt is graphic¬ ally described by Mr. Lane in his Modern Egyptians. We give the account as it con¬ trasts strikingly with the simple processions of Sunni Muhammadans in India. “ The first persons are about six or more poor meu, called ‘ Yamaniyah,’ mostly blind, who proceed two and two, or three and three, together. Walking at a moderate pace, or rather slowly, they chant incessantly, in a melancholy tone, the profession of faith (‘ There is no deity but God ; Muhammad is God's Apostle; Godfavour and preserve him !’). They are followed by some male relations and friends of the deceased, and, in many cases, by two or more persons of some sect of darweshes, bearing the flags of their order. This is a general custom at the funeral of a darwosh. Next follow three or four or more schoolboys; one of them carries a mu&baf (or copy of the Qur an), or a volume consist¬ ing of one of the thirty sections of the Qur’an, placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm- sticks, and covered over, generally with an embroidered kerchief. These boys chant, in a higher and livelier voice than the \ amaniyah, usually some words of a poem called the Hashriyah , descriptive of the events of the last day, the judgment, Ac. The school¬ boys immediately precede the bier, which is borne head-foremost. Three or four friends of the deceased usually carry it for a short distance; then three or four other friends bear it a little further ; and then these are in like manner relieved. Casual passengers, also, often take part in this ser¬ vice, which is esteemed highly meritorious. Behind the bier walk the female mourners ; sometimes a group of more than a dozen, or twenty ; with their hair dishevelled, though generally concealed by the bead-veil ; crying and shrieking, as before described ; and often, the hired mourners accompany them, cele¬ brating the praises of the deceased. Among the women, the relations and domestics of the deceased are distinguished by a strip of linen or cotton stuff or muslin, generally blue, bound round the head, and tied in a single knot behind : the ends hanging down a few inches. Each of these also carries a hand¬ kerchief, usually dyed blue, which she some¬ times holds over her shoulders, and at other times twirls with both hands over her head, or before her face. The cries of the women, the lively chanting of the youths, and the deep tones uttered by the Yamaniyah, com¬ pose a strange discord. “ The funeral procession of a man of wealth, or of a person of the middle classes, is some¬ times preceded by three or four or more camels, bearing bread and water to give to the poor at the tomb, and is composed of a moro numerous and varied assemblage of persons. The foremost of these are the Yamaniyah, who chant the profession of the faith, as described above. They are generally followed by some male friends of the deceased, and some learned and devout persons w’ho have been invited to attend the funeral. Next follows a group of four or more faqihs, chant¬ ing the ‘ Suratu ’1-An‘am ’ (the vith chapter of the Qur’an); and sometimes, another group, chanting the ‘Surat Ya-sin ’ (the xxxvith chapter) ; another, chanting the ‘ Suratu ’1- Kahf’ (the xvmth chapter); and another chanting the ‘ Suratu ’d-Dukhan ’ (the XLivth chapter). These are followed by some mun- shids, singing the ‘ Burdah ; ’ and these by certain persons called 4 Ashabu 1-Ahzab,’ who are members of religious orders founded by celebrated shaikhs. There are generally four or more of the order of the Hizbu 's-Sadat, a similar group of the Hizbu ’ h-Shazili, and another of the Hizbu ’sh-Sha*rawi ; each group chants a particular form of prayer. After them are generally borne two or more half- furled flags, the banners of one or other of the principal orders of darweshes. Then follow* the school-boys, the bier, and the female mourners, as in the procession before described, and, perhaps, the led horses of the bearers, if these be men of rank. A buffalo, to be sacrificed at the tomb, where its flesh is to be distributed to the poor, sometimes closes the procession. “ The funeral of a devout shaikh, cr of one of the great ‘Ulama, is still more numerously attended, and the bier of such a person is not covered with a shawl. A ’ wali is further honoured in his funeral by a remarkable custom. Women follow his bier, but, instead of wailing, as they would after the corpse of an ordinary mortal, they rend the air with the shrill and quavering cries of joy called « zagharit and if these cries are discontinued but for a minute, the bearers of the bier pro¬ test that they cannot proceed, that a super¬ natural power rivets them to the spot on BURIAL BURNING 47 which they stand. Very often, it is said, a » wall ’ impels the bearers of his corpse to a particular spot. The following anecdote, describing an ingenious mode of puzzling a dead saint in a case of this kind, was related to me by one of my friends. Some men were lately bearing the corpse of a ‘ wall ’ to a tomb prepared for it in the great cemetery on the north of the metropolis, but on arriving at the gate called Babu ’n-Nasr, which leads to the cemetery, they found themselves unable to proceed further, from the cause above-men¬ tioned. ‘ It seems,’ said one of the bearers, ‘ that the shaikh is determined not to be buried in the cemetery of Babu ’n-Nasr, and what shall we do ? ’ They were all much perplexed, but being as obstinate as the saint himself, they did not immediately yield to his caprice. Retreating a few paces, and then advancing with a quick step, they thought by such an impetus to force the corpse through the gateway ; but their efforts were unsuccess¬ ful; and the same experiment they repeated in vain several times. They then placed the bier on the ground to rest and consult ; and one of them, beckoning away his comrades to a distance beyond the hearing of the dead saint, said to them, ‘ Let us take up the bier again, and turn it round several times till the 6haikh becomes giddy; he then will not know in what direction we are going, and we may take him easily through the gate.’ This they did ; the saint was puzzled as they expected, and quietly buried in the place which he had so striven to avoid. “ In the funerals of females and boys, the bier is usually only preceded by the Yamanl- yah, chanting the profession of the faith, and by some male relations of the deceased ; and followed b}r the female mourners ; unless the deceased were of a family of wealth, or of considerable, station in the world ; in which case, the funeral procession is distinguished by some additional display. I shall give a short descripti m of one of the most genteel and decorous funerals of this kind that I have witnessed : it was that of a young, unmarried lady. Two men, each bearing a large, furled, green flag, headed the procession, preceding the \amaniyah, who chanted in an unusually low and solemn manner. These faqirs, who were in number about eight, were followed by a group of fakihs, chanting a chapter of the Qur’an. Next after the latter was a man bearing a large branch of ‘Nabq’ (or lote- tree), an emblem of the deceased. On each side of him walked a person bearing a tall staff or cane, to the top of which were at¬ tached several hoops ornamented with strips of various coloured paper. These were fol¬ lowed by two Turkish soldiers, side by side, one bearing, on a small round tray, a gilt silver ‘ qumqum ' Df rose-water, and the other bearing, on a similar tray, a ‘ mibkjiarah’ of gilt silver, in which some odoriferous sub¬ stance (as benzoin, or frankincense) was burning. These vessels diffused the odour of their contents on the way, and were after¬ wards used to perfume the sepulchral vault. Passengers were occasionally sprinkled with the rose-water. Next followed four men, each of whom bore, upon a small tray, several small lighted tapers of wax, stuck in lumps of paste of ‘ hinna.’ The bier was covered with rich shawls, and its shahid was decorated with handsome ornaments of the head, having, besides the safa, a ‘ qussah almas ’ (a long ornament of gold and dia¬ monds worn over the forehead), and, upon its flat to^, a rich diamond qurs. These were the jewels of the deceased, or were, perhaps, as is often the case, borrowed for the occa¬ sion. The female mourners, in number about seven or eight, clad in the usual manner of the ladies of Egypt (with the black silk covering, Ac.), followed the bier, not on foot as is the common custom in funerals in this country, but mounted on high-saddled asses ; and only the last two or three of them were wailing ; these being, probabljT, hired mourners. In another funeral-procession of a female, the daughter of a Turk of high rank, the Yama- nlyah were followed by six slaves, walking two by two. The first twm slaves bore each a silver qumqum of rose-water, which they sprinkled on the passengers ; and one of them honoured me so profusely as to wet my dress very uncomfortably ; after which, he poured a small quantity into my hands ; and I wetted my face with it, according to custom. Each of the next two bore a silver mibkharah, with perfume ; and the other two carried a silver ’azqi (or hanging censer), with burning charcoal of frankincense. The jewels on the shahid of the bier were of a costly description. Eleven ladies, mounted on high-saddled asses, together with several naddabahs, followed.” BURNING THE DEAD. There is no express injunction, in either the Qur’an or the Traditions, regarding the burning of dead bodies, although the burning of the living is strictly forbidden. For Muhammad said, “ Punish not with God’s punishment (wThich is fire), for it is not fit for anyone to punish with fire but God.” ( Mishkat , xiv c. v. part 1.) The teaching of the Traditions is that a dead body is as fully conscious of pain as a living body, for ‘Ayishah said, that the Prophet said, “ The breaking of the bones of a corpse is the same as doing it in life.” ( Mishkat , v. c. vi. part 2.) It is, therefore, pretty clearly established that cremation of the dead is strictly forbidden by the Muhammadan religion. There is, how ever, nothing to confirm the impression that the burning of a corpse in any way pre¬ vents its soul entering paradise. BURNING TO DEATH is strictly forbidden by Muslim law. ‘Ikrimah relates that some apostates from Islam were brought to the Khalifab ‘AIT, and he burnt them ; and when Ibn ‘Abbas heard of it, he said, « Had they been brought to me, I would not have burnt them ; for the Prophet said, ‘ Punish not with God’s punishment. Verily it is not fit for anyone to punish with fire' but God ’" (Mishkat, xiv. c. v. part 1.) 43 CALEB BURQA* BURQA‘ (£h?)- The veil or cover- ing used for the seclusion of women when walking abroad, [veiling of women.] BURUJ (r^b Lit. “Towers,” which some interpret as real towers wherein the angels keep watch. A term used for the twelve signs of the zodiac, [signs of the zodiac.] Al-Buruj is the title of theLxxxvth Surah of the Qur’an. BURYING OF THE DEAD. It is said by commentators that God taught mankind to bury their deed when •• God sent a crow to scratch the earth, to show him (Cain) how he might hide his brother’s body.” (Qur’an, Surah v. 04: Tufsir-i-lltifutini . in loco.) The custom of burying their dead is universal in Islam. The ceremonies con¬ nected with funerals will be found in the article on Burial, [burial.] BURYING-GEOUND. Aral.ic meiqbarat or maqbara/i, “ The place of graves.” Persian Qabr-yah , or Qabristan. They are sometimes spoken of by religious Muslims as Marqad, a “ cemetery ” or “ sleeping-place,” but the name has not obtained a general application to burial-grounds in the East as it has in the West. They are generally situated outside the city, the graves being covered with pebbles, and distinguished by headstones, those on the graves of men being with a turban-like head. The graves are dug from north to south. The grave-yards are usually much neglected. The Wahhabis hold it to be n meritorious act. in accordance with the injunctions of the Prophet, to neglect the graves of the dead, the erection of brick tombs being forbidden. (Ifidayuh, Arabic ed., vol. i. p. 00.) A grave-yard does not become public property until the proprietor formally makes a gift or bequest of it. ( llidayuh , vol ii., р. 357.) BUSIIRA “ Good news ; " •• the gospel.” A word u*ed in the Traditions for the publication of Islam. (Mishkat, xxiv. с. i.) •• Accept good news, 0 ye sons of Tamim.” which *Abdu T-Haqq says means embrace Plum.’’ BUYING, [bai1.] BUZURG (<&#) Lit. “ great" A Persian word used in the East for a saintly person, an old man, or a person of rank. c CAESAR. The Arabic and Persian form of the Latin Ciesar in Q'ti<(tr. The word occurs in the traditions of the Sohihn 7- Mus/im (vol. ii. p. 91b, where it is applied to the Emperor Heraelius. who received a letter from Muhammad inviting him to Islam, when he was at Edessa ou his way to Jerusalem, August, a.d. G2S. The origin of the title is uncertain. Spartianus. in his life of Aelius verus (c. ii.), mentions four different opinions respecting its origin: (I) That the word sig¬ nified an elephant in the language of the Moors, and was given as a surname to one of the Julii because he had killed an elephant : or (-) J hat it was given to one of the Julii because he had been cut ( caesus ) out of his mother’s womb after her death; or (3) Because he had been born with a great quantity of hair (aesancs) on his head ; or (4) Because he had azure- coloured ( cue sit ) eyes. Of these opinions the second is the one adopted by the Arabic- Persian Dictionary the Gloyjraise of their Lord, and believe in Him. and ask pardon for those who believe.” Al-Baizawi says the Karubin are the highest rank, and the first created angels. Husain says there are 70,000 ranks of them round the throne of God. ( Tafsiru ’ l-Baizdwi , Tafsiru Husain, in loco.) CHESS. Arabic Shatranj. Ac¬ cording to the Hidayab, “ It is an abomi¬ nation to play at chess, dice, or any other game, for if anything be staked it is gambling ( maisir ), which is expressly for¬ bidden in the Qur’an ; or if, on the other hand, nothing be hazarded, it is useless and vain. Besides, the Prophet has declared all the entertainments of a Muslim to be vain except three : the breaking in of his horse, the drawing of his bow, and playing and amusing himself with his wives. Several of the learned, however, deem the game at chess lawful a,s having a tendency to quicken the understanding. This is the opinion of ash - Shafi'i. If a man play at chess for a stake, it destroys the integrity of his character, but if he do not play for a stake, the integrity of his character is not affected. (Hamilton’s Hidd- yah, voL iv. p. 122.) CHILDREN. Arabic Auldd. There are no special injunctions in the Qur’an regarding the customs to be ob¬ served at the birth of an infant (circumci¬ sion not being even once mentioned in that book), nor with reference to the train¬ ing and instruction of the young ; but the subject is frequently referred to in the Tra¬ ditions and in Muhammadan books on Ethics. Muhammadans have so largely incorporated the customs of the Hindus in India with their own, especially those observed at the births of children, that it is sometimes difficult to dis¬ tinguish those which are special characteris¬ tics of Islam ; many of the customs recorded in Herklot’s Musalmans, for examplo, being merely 4hose common to Hindus as well as Muhammadans. Wo shall, however, endea¬ vour to describe those which are generally admitted to have some authority in the pre¬ cepts of the Muslim religion. (I.) At the birth of a child, after he has been properly washed with water and bound in swaddling clothes, he is carried by the mid¬ wife to the assembly of male relatives and friends, who have met on the occasion, when the chief Maulawl, or some t erson present, recites the Azan, or summons to prayer [azan], in the infant’s right ear, and Jhe Jqdmah, which is the Azan with the addition of the words, “We are standing up for prayers ” [iqamah], in the left ear ; a custom which is founded on the example of the Pro¬ phet, who is related to have done so at the birth of his grandson Hasan ( Mishkat , book xviii. c. iv. 2). The Maulawi then chews a little date fruit and inserts it into the infant s mouth, a custom also founded upon the ex¬ ample of Muhammad. ( Mishkat , book xviii. c. iv. 1.) This ceremony being over, alms are distributed, and fdtihcihs are recited for the health and prosperity of the child. According to the traditions, the amount of silver given in alms should be of the same weight as the hair on the infant’s head — the child s head being shaved for this purpose. (Ahsh- kdt, ibid., part 2.) The friends and neigh¬ bours then visit the home, and bring presents, and pay congratulatory compliments on the joyful occasion. , (2.) The naming of the child should, accord¬ ing to the Traditions (Mishkat, ibuL), be CHILDREN CHILDREN 51 given on the seventh day ; the child being either named after some member of the family, or after some saint venerated by the family, or some name suggested by the au¬ spicious hour, the planet, or the sign of the zodiac, [exorcism.] (3.) On this, the seventh day, is observed also the ceremony of ‘ Aqiqah , established by Muhammad himself ( Bdbu 'l- Aqiqah in Arabic Ed. Sahih of Abu Daud, vol. ii. p. 36) It consists of a sacrifice to God, in the name of the child, of two he-goats for a boy, and one he-goat for a girl. The goats must be not above a year old, and without spot or blemish. The animal is dressed and cooked, and whilst the friends eat of it they offer the following prayer : — “0 God! I offer to thee instead of my own offspring, life for life, blood for blood, head for head, bone for bone, hair for hair, skin for skin. In the name of the great God. I do sacrifice this goat ! ” (4.) The mother is purified on th e fortieth day, when she is at liberty to go about as usual, and it is on this day that the infant is generally placed in the swinging cradle pecu¬ liar to eastern households. It is a day of some rejoicing amongst the members of the Haram. (5.) As soon as the child is able to talk, or when he has attained the age of four years, four months, and four days, he is taught the BismiUah ; that is, to recite the inscription which occurs at the commencement of the Qur'an : “ Bi-smi 7/ dhi 'r-rahmdni 'r-rahim .” In the name of God the Merciful, the Gra¬ cious. After this ceremony, the child is sent to school and taught the alphabet, and to recite certain chapters of the Qur’an by rote. (6.) According to the opinion of Sunni doctors, the circumcision of the child should take place in his seventh year ; the opera¬ tion being generally performed by the barber. [circumcision.] The child is not required to observe all the customs of the Muslim law until he has a rived at puberty [puberty] ; but it is held incumbent on parents and guardians to teach him the prayers as soon as he haD been circumcised. (/•) The time when the child has finished renting the whole of the Qur'an, once through, is also regarded as an important epoch in the life of a child. On this occasion the scholar makes his obeisance to his tutor and presents him with trays of sweetmeats, a suit of clothes, and money. As we have already remarked, the instruc¬ tion of youth is a frequent subject of discussion in books of Muslim Ethics. The following, which is taken from the Akhldq-i-Jalah , is an interesting specimen of Muhammadan ideas on the subject: — The first requisite is to employ a proper nurse of a well-balanced temperament, for the qualities, both temperamental and spiri¬ tual, of the nurse are communicated to the infant. Next, since we are recommended by the Traditions to give the name on the seventh day (after birth), the precept had better be conformed to. In delaying it, however, there is this advantage, that time is given for a deliberate selection of an appropriate name. For, if we give the child an ill-assorted one. his whole life is embittered in consequence Hence caution in deteimining the name is one of the parent’s obligations towards his off¬ spring. If we would prevent the child’s acquiring culpable habits, we must apply ourselves to educate him as soon as weaned. For though men have a capacity for perfection, the ten¬ dency to vice is naturally implanted in the soul. The first requisite is to restrain him abso¬ lutely from all acquaintance with those ex¬ cesses which are characterised as vice. For the mind of children is like a clear tablet, equally open to any inscription. Next to that, he should be taught the institutes of religion and rules of propriety, and, according as his power and capacity may admit, confined to their practice, and reprehended and restrained from their neglect. Thus, at the age of seven, we are told by the Traditions to enjoin him merely to say his prayers ; at the age of ten, if he omits them, to admonish him by blows. By praising the good and censuring the bad, we should render him emulous of right and apprehensive of wrong. We should commend him when he performs a creditable action, and intimidate him when he commits a reprehensible one ; and yet we should avoid, if possible, subjecting him to positive cen¬ sure, imputing it rather to oversight, lest he grow audacious. If he keep his fault a secret, we are not to rend away the disguise ; but if he do so repeatedly, we mu6t rebuke him severely in private, aggravating the heinousness of such a practice, and intimidat¬ ing him from its repetition. We must beware, however, of too much frequency of detection and reproof, for fear of his growing used to censure, and contracting a habit of reckless¬ ness ; and thus, according to the proverb, “ Men grow eager for that which is withheld,” feeling a tendency to repeat the offence. For these reasons we should prefer to work by enhancing the attraction of virtue. On meat, drink, and fine clothing, he must be taught to look with contempt, and deeply impressed with the conviction that it is the practice of women only to prize the colour¬ ing and figuring of dress ; that men ought to hold themselves above it. The proprieties of meal-taking are those in which he should be earliest instructed, as far as he can acquire them. He should be made to understand that the proper end of eating is health and not gratification ; that food and drink are a sort of medicine for the cure of hunger and thirst ; and just as medicines are only to be taken in the measure of need, according as sickness may require their influence, food and drink are only to be used in quantity sufficient to satisfy hunger and remove thirst. He should be forbidden to vary his diet, and taught to prefer limiting himself to a single dish. His appetite should also be checked that he may be satisfied with meals at the stated hours. Let him not be a lover of delicacies. He should now and then be kept on dry bread only, in order that in time of need he may be 52 CHILDREN CHILDREN able to subsist on that. Habits like these are better than riches. Let his principal meal bo made in the evening rather than the morning, or he will be overpowered by drowsiness and lassitude during the day. Fiesh let him have sparingly, or he will grow heavy and dull. Sweetmeats and other such aperient food should be forbidden him, as likewise all liquid at tho time of meals. Incumbent as it is on all men to eschew strong drinks, there are obvious reasons why it is superlatively so on boys, impairing them both in mind and body, and leading to anger, rashness, auda¬ city, and levity, qualities which such a prac¬ tice is sure to confirm. Parties of this nature he should not be allowed unnecessarily to frequent, nor to listen to reprehensible conver¬ sation. His food should not be given to him till ho has despatched his tasks, unless suf¬ fering from positive exhaustion, lit* must be forbidden to conceal any of his actions, lest he grow bold in impropriety ; for, manifestly, tho motive to concealment can be no other than an idea that tlioy are culpable. Sleep¬ ing in the day and sleeping overmuch at night should be prohibited. Soft clothing and all the uses of luxury, such as cool retreats in the hot season', and tires and fur in the cold, ho should be taught to abstain from ; he should be inured to exercise, foot-walking, horse-riding, and all other appropriate accom¬ plishments. Next, let him learn the proprieties of con¬ versation and behaviour. Let him not bo tricked out with trimmings of the hair and womanly attention to dress, nor be presented with rings till tho proper time for wearing them. Let him bo forbidden to boast to his companions of his ancestry or worldly advan¬ tages. Let him bo restrained from speaking untruths or from swearing in any case, whether true or false ; for an oath is wrongful in any¬ one, and repugnant to the letter of tho T radi- tions, saving when required by the interest of the public. And even though oaths may be requisite to men, to boys they never can be so. Let him be trained to silence, to speaking only when addressed, to listening in the presence of his elders, and expressing himself correctly. For an instructor he should have a man of principle and intelligence, well acquainted with the discipline of morals, fond of cleanli¬ ness, noted for stateliness, dignity, and huma¬ nity, well acquainted with the dispositions of kings, with tho etiquette of dining in their company, and with the terms of intercourse with all classes of mankind. It is desir¬ able that others of his kind, and especially sons of noblemen, whose manners havo always a distinguished elegance, should bo at school with him, so that in their society he may escape lassitude, learn demeanour, and exert himself with emulation in his studies. If tlm instructor correct him with blows, ho must bo forbidden to cry, for that is the practice of slaves and imbeciles. On the other hand, the instructor must bo care¬ ful not to resort to blows, except h> i* wit¬ ness of an o openly • .oinmitted \Wku compelled to inflict thorn, it is desirablo in tho outset to make them small in number and groat in pain ; otherwise the warning is not so eliicacious, and he may grow audacious enough to repeat the offence. Let him bo encouraged to liberality, and taught to look with contempt on the perish¬ able things of this world ; for more ill comes from tho love of money than from the simoom of the desert or the serpent of the Held. The Imam al-Ghazzali, in commenting on the text, “ Preserve me and them from idolatry,” savs that by idols is hero meant gold and silver ; and Abraham’s prayer is that he and his descendants may bo kept far removed from the worship of gold and silver, and from fixing their affections on them; because tho love of these was tho root of all evil. In his leisure hours he may bo allowed to play, provided it docs not load to excess of fatigue or the commission of anything wrong. When the discerning power begins to pre¬ ponderate, it should be explained to him that the original object of worldly possessions is the maintenance of health; so that tho body may be made to last the period requisite to the spirit’s qualifying itself for the life eternal. Then, if ho is to belong to the scientific classes, let him be instructed in the sciences. Let him be employed (as soon as disengaged from studying the essentials of the religion) in acquiring the sciences. The best course is to ascertain, bv examination of tho youth’s character, for what science or art he is best qualified, and to employ him accord¬ ingly ; for, agreeably to the proverb, *• All facilities are not created to tho samo person everyone is not qualified for every pvofess- sion, but each for a particular one. This, indeed, is the expression of a prin¬ ciple by which the fortunes of man and of tho world are regulated. W it h the old philoso¬ phers it was a practico to inspect the horo¬ scope of nativity, and to devote tho child to that profession which appea ed from tho planetary positions to be suitable to his nature. When a person is adapted to a pro¬ fession, he can acquire it with lit 1 1 ' pains; and when unadapted, the utmost ho can do is but to waste his time and defer his esta¬ blishment in life. When a profession bears an incongruity with his nature, and means and appliances are unpropitious, we should not urge him to pursue it, but exchange it for some other, provided that there is no hope at all of succeeding with the first ; othoiv\ise it may lead to his perplexity. In the prosecu- tion of every profession, let him tdopt a system which will call into play tho hi dour of his nature, assist him in preserving health, and prevent obtusity and lassitude. As soon as he is perfect in a profession, let him bo required to gain his livelihood thereby; in order that, from an cxpenenco of its advantages, lm may strive to master it completely, and make full progross in tho minuti.u of its principles. And for t-us livelihood ho must bo trained to look to that honourable emolument wlikh clmrao- wdl i*. mu*, tod. H<* must not CHRISTIANITY 53 CHILD STEALING depend on the provision afforded by his father. For it generally happens, when the sons of the wealthy, by the pride of their parents’ opulence, are debarred from acquir¬ ing a profession, that they sink by the vicis¬ situdes of fortune into utter insignificance. Therefore, when he has so far mastered his profession as to earn a livelihood, it is expe¬ dient to provide him with a consort, and let him depend on his separate earning. The Kings of Fars, forbearing to bring their sons up surrounded by domestics and retinue, sent them off to a distance, in order to habituate them to a life of hardship. The Dilemite chiefs had the same practice. A person bred upon the opposite principle can hardly be brought to good, especially if at all ad¬ vanced in years ; like hard wood which is with difficulty straightened. And this was the answer Socrates gave, when asked why his intimacies lay chiefly among the young. In training daughters to that which befits them, domestic ministration, rigid seclusion, chastity, modest}’, and the other qualities already appropriated to women — no care can be too great. They should be made emulous of acquiring the virtues of their sex, but must be altogether forbidden to read and write. When they reach the marriageable age, no time should be lost in marrying them to proper mates. (See Akhlaq-i-Jalali , Thomp¬ son’s ed.) CHILD STEALING. The hand of a thief is not to be cut off for stealing a free-born child, although there be ornaments upon it, because a free person is not property, and the ornaments are only appendages ; and also because the thief may plead that he took the child up when it was crying, with a view to appease it, and to deliver it to the nurse. But Abu Yusuf does not^agree with Hanifah ; for he says where the value of the ornaments amounts to tendirms, amputation is incurred. Amputation is also inflicted for stealing an infant slave, because a slave is property, although Abu Yusuf says it is not. ( Hidd - yah, ii. 91.) CHOSROES. Arabic Khusraw. The King of Persia to whom Muhammad sent a letter inviting him to Islam. He is said to bo Nausherwan. (See Ghiyagu 7- Lughat, in loco ; refer also to Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. 54 n.) CHRIST. [JESUS CHRIST.] CHRISTIANITY and CHRIS¬ TIANS. Arabic, Nasramyah, “ Christianity”; the terms used for Christians being Nasran, pi. Nasara, or ‘Isawi. Christianity seems to have been widely dif¬ fused in Arabia at the time of Muhammad. According to Caussin de Perceval, who quotes from Arabic writers, Christianity existed amongst the Banu Taghlib of Mesopotamia, the Banu ‘Abdu 1-Qais, the Banu Haris of Najran, the Banu Ghassan of Syria, and other tribes between al-Madinah and al- Kufah. The historian Philostorges {Hist. Kecks. lib. 1, c. 3) tells us that a monk named Theo- philus, who was an Indian bishop, was sent by the Emperor Constance, a.d 342, to the Himyarite King of Yaman, and obtained per¬ mission to build three Christian churches for those who professed Christianity ; one at Zafar, another at ‘Adan, and a third at Hur- muz oa the Persian Gulf. According to the same author, the Christian religion was in¬ troduced into Najran in the fifth century. A bishop sent by the Patriarch of Alexandria was established in the city of Zafar, and we are told by Muslim authors, quoted by Caussin de Perceval, that a Christian church was built at San‘a’ which was the wonder of the age, the Roman Emperor and the Viceroy of Abyssinia furnishing the materials and workmen for the building. The Arabs of Yaman were ordered by the ruler of Abyssinia to perform a pilgrimage to this new church instead of to the Ka‘bah ; an edict which is said to have been resisted and to have given rise to the “ War of the Ele¬ phant,” when Abrahah, the Viceroy of Egypt, took an oath that he would destroy the Meccan temple, and marched at the head of an army of Abyssinians, mounted on an elephant. This “ War of* the Elephant ” marks the period of Muhammad’s birth. [MUHAMMAD.] The Christianity of this period is described by Mosheim as “ expiring under a motley and enormous heap of superstitious inventions, with neither the courage nor the force to raise her head or display her national charms to a darkened and deluded world.” Doubtless much of the success of Islam in its earlier stage was due to the state of degradation into which the Christian Church had fallen. The bitter dissensions of the Greeks, Nestorians, Eutychians, and Monophysites are matters of history, and must have held up the religion of Jesus to the ridicule of the heathen world. A UD i in person of our Divine Lord had begotten a sect of Tritheists, led by a Syrian philoso¬ pher named John Pliiloponus of Alexandria, and are sufficient to account for Muhammad’s conception of the Blessed Trinity. The wor¬ ship of the Virgin Mary had also given rise to a religious controversy between the Antiduo- Marianites and the Collyridians ; the former holding that the Virgin was not immaculate, and the latter raising her to a position of a goddess. Under the circumstances it is not surprising to find that the mind of the Arabian reformer turned away from Christianity and endeavoured to construct a religion on the lines of Judaism. [Judaism.] Al-Baizawi and other Muslim commenta¬ tors, admit that Muhammad received Chris¬ tian instruction from learned Christians named Jubra and Yasara (al-Baizawi on burah xvi. 105), and that on this account the Quraish said, “ It is only some mortal that teaches him ! ” For the Traditions relate that Muhammad used to stop and listen to these two Christians as they read aloud the Books of Moses ( Taurdt ) and the Now Testa¬ ment {lnjil). But it is remarkable that Mu- 54 CHRISTIANITY CHRISTIANITY nammad should, after all, have obtained such a cursory knowledge of Christianity. For from the text of the Qur’an (extracts of which are subjoined), it is evident that he was under the impression that the Sacrament of Baptism was Sib), the term also being used in Afghan¬ istan for the mosque itself. There are special rewards for those Mu¬ hammadans who assemble together for the stated prayers ; for Muhammad has said, “ The prayers which are said in a congrega¬ tion increase the rewards of the worshipper twenty-seven degrees.” “ Say your prayers in a congregation, far a wolf does not eat the sheep except one has strayed from the flock.” ( Mixhkat , book iv. ch. xxiv.) The Sunni style themselves Ah/u Sunnah wa Jam'ah , i.e. the people of the traditions and of the congregation,” in contradistinction to the ShPahs, who do not worship in a con¬ gregation unless the Imam, or leader, be a man entirely free from sin. [imam.] The word jam'ah is also used foi an assembly of people collected to decide a ques¬ tion of law or theology, the ijma ‘ being their decision, more frequently called ijmd'u 7- utnmah. CONSCIENCE. There is no word in the Qur’an which exactly expresses the Christian conception of conscience. The word nafs which, according to Arabic lexicons, expresses very much the same idea as the Hebrew nephesh, “ life, animal spirit, breath ” (Job xli. 21), seems to be used in the Qur’an to convey the meaning of con¬ science, although English translators render it “ soul.” Muslim theologians say there are four kinds of consciences spoken of in the Qur’an : (1) Nafs /awwamah, the “ self- accusing soul or conscience ” (Surah lxxv. 3). (2] Nafs ammarah , the “ soul or conscience prone to evil” (Surah xii. 53). (3) Nafs mutma'innah, the “ peaceful soul or con¬ science ” (Surah lxxxix. 12). (4) Nafs mul- hammah, the “ soul or conscience in which is breathed both bad and good ” (Surah lxxxiv. 27.) It occurs also in the sense of conscience in the Traditions ( Mishkat , book i. ch. i. pt. 3) : “ When anything pricks your soul (nafs) for¬ sake it.” Abdu ’1-Haqq, in his Persian com¬ mentary on the Mishkat, renders it by zdt, but the English word conscience would seem to express the precise idea. In Persian Mu¬ hammadan works, as well as in common con¬ versation, the word nafs is now used in its evil sense, of desire or passion, but it must be evident that tbis is not its Qur’anic mean¬ ing. The word zimmah, which in later Arabic, together with zamir , is uaed to express conscience, has in the only pas¬ sage where it occurs in the Qur’an a decidedly different meaning, e.g. Surah ix. 8, 10, where it means clientship. Sale and Rodwell both translate it “ faith,” but Palmer more accu¬ rately renders it “ ties of clientship.” CONVERSATION. The follow. ing instructions are given in the Qur’an re¬ garding talking and conversation. Surah xxxi. 17, “Be moderate in thy walk, and lower thy voice; verily the most disagreeable of voices is the voice of asses.” Surah ii. 77, “ Speak to men kindly.” In the Tradi¬ tions, Ibn Mas'ud relates that Muhammad said, “ May those people go to the fire of hell who speak much.” On the subject of conversation, Faqir Jani Muhammad As‘ad, the author of the cele¬ brated ethical work entitled the Akhlak-i- Jala/i, p 288, says : — “ He should not talk much, for it is a sign of levity in feeling and weakness in judgment, and tends to lower him in point of considera¬ tion and position. We are told that the Pro¬ phet used to observe the strictest medium in his language; so much so, that, in the most protracted interviews, you might have counted the words he uttered. Buzurg Jamihr used to say, ‘ When you see a person talking much without occasion, be sure he is out of his senses.’ Let him not give vent to expres¬ sions till he has determined ifi his own mind what he is going to say. When anyone is relating a story, however well known to the listener, the latter is not to intimate his ac¬ quaintance with it till the narrative is con¬ cluded. A question put to others he must not himself reply to ; if put to a body of which he is a member, let him not prevent the others ; and if another is engaged in answering what himself could answer better, let him keep silence till the other’s statement is completed, and then give his own, but in such sort as not to annoy the former speaker. Let him not commence his reply till the querist’s sentence is concluded. Conversa¬ tions and discussions which do not concern him, although held in his presence, he is not to interfere in; and if people conceal what they are saying, he must not attempt furtively to overhear. To his elders he should speak with judgment, pitching his voice at a medium between high and low. Should any abstruse topic present itself, he should give it per¬ spicuity by comparison. Prolixity he should never aim at. when not absolutely required ; on the contrary, let it be his endeavour to compress all he has to say. Neither should he employ unusual term9 or far-fetched figures. He should beware of obscenity and bad lan¬ guage ; or if he must needs refer to an inde¬ cent subject, let him be content with allusion by metaphor. Of all things, let him keep clear of a taste for indelicacy, which tends to lower hi9 breeding, degrade his respectability, and bring him into general disagreement and dislike. Let his language upon ever} occa¬ sion correspond with the exigency of his posi¬ tion; and if accompanied bv gesticulation of the hand or eye or eyebrow, let it be only of that graceful sort which his situation calls for. Let him never, for right or wrong, en¬ gage in disputes with others of the company ; least of all with the elders or the tridera of it : and when embarked in such dispute, let him be rigidly observant of the rules of candour. “ Let him not deal in profound observation bevond the intellect of those he is addressing. CONVERTS CORRUPTION 61 but adapt his discourse to the judgment of his hearers. Thus even the Prophet has declared— < We of the prophetic order are enjoined to ad¬ dress men in the measure of their understand¬ ings ’ : and Jesus (blessed be he) said, ‘ Use not wisdom with the unwise to their annoj ance (St. Matthew vii. 6 ?). In all his conversation let him adhere to the ways of courtesy. Never let him mimic anyone’s gestures, actions, or words, nor give utterance to the language of menace. “ When addressing a great person, let him begin with something ominous of good, as the permanence of his fortune, felicity, and so forth. “From all back-biting, carping, slander, and falsehood, whether heard or spoken, let him hold it essential to keep clear ; nay, even from any partnership with those addicted to such practices. Let him listen more than he speaks. It was the answer of a wise man to those who asked him why he did so, * Because,’ said he, ‘ God has given me two ears and only one tongue ’ ; which was as much as to say, ‘ Hear twice as much as you speak.’ ” CONVERTS TO THE MUHAM¬ MADAN RELIGION. According to the author of the Hidayah (vol. ii. 170), if a hostile in¬ fidel embrace Islam in a hostile country, his person is his own, and he is not made a slave, nor can his children be enslaved. His pro¬ perty is also his own. But it is not so in the case of one who has been first conquered and then embraces Islam, for his own person and his children become slaves, and his wives are at the mercy of the victorious Muslim, whilst his lands also become the property of the State. COVENANT. The word in the Qur’an and the Traditions for God’s Cove¬ nant with His people is Mi§aq. Muham¬ mad taught, both in the Qur’an and in the Traditions, that in the beginning God called all the souls of mankind together and took a promise {ica'dah) and a covenant ( mi$dq ) from them. The account of this transaction is given as follows in the Qur’an, Surah vii. 171 : — “Thy Lord brought forth their descendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness against themselves, ‘ Am I not,’ said He, ‘ your Lord ? ’ They said, * Y es, we witness it.’ This we did, lest ye should say on the Day of Resurrection, ‘ Truly, of this were we heedless, because uninformed.’ “ Or lest ye should say, ‘ Our fathers, indeed, aforetime joined other gods with our God, and we are their seed after them : wilt thou destroy us for the doings of vain men ? ’ ” But the story aR told in the Traditions is more graphic : — “ Ubai ibn Ka‘b relates, in explanation of the verse in the Suratu ’1-A‘raf (verse 171): Mhen God created (the spirits of) the sons of Adam, he collected them together and made them of different tribes, and of different appearances, and gave them powers of speech. Then they began to speak, and God took from them a promise (wa‘dah), and a covenant ( mi§dq ), and said, ‘Am I not thy jjord?^ They all answered and said, ‘ Thou art. Then God said, ‘ Swear by the seven hea¬ vens and the seven earths, and by Adam your father, that you will not say in the resurrec¬ tion, We did not understand this. Know ye therefore that there is no Deity but Me, and there is no God but Me. Do not associate anything with Me. I will verily send to you your own apostles who shall remind you of this Promise and of this Covenant, and I will send to vou your own books.’ The sons of Adam then replied, ‘ We are witnesses that Thou art our Lord ( Rabb ), and our God ( Allah). There is no Lord but Thee and no God but Thee.’ Then they confessed this and made it known to Adam. Then Adam looked at them and beheld that there were amongst them those that were rich and poor, handsome and ugly, and he said, ‘ 0 Lord why didst Thou not make them all alike ? ’ And the Lord said, ‘ Truly I willed it thus in order that some of my servants may be thankful.’ Then Adam saw amongst his pos¬ terity, prophets, like unto lamps, and upon these lamps there were lights, and they were appointed by special covenants of prophecy ( nabuwah ) and of apostleship ( rasalah ). And thus it is written in the Qur’an (Surah xxxiii. 7), ‘ Remember we have entered into covenant with the Prophets, with thee Mu¬ hammad, and with Noah, and with Abraham, and with Musa, and with Jesus the Son of Mary, and we made with them a covenant.’ And (continues Ubai) Jesus was amongst the spirits.” ( Mishkat , Arabic Ed. Babu '1-Qadr.l COVERING THE HEAD. There is no injunction in either the Qur'an or Tra¬ ditions as to a man covering his head during prayers, although it is generally held to be more modest and correct for him to do so. With reference to women, the law is impe¬ rative, for ‘Ayishah relates that Muhammad said, “ God accepts not the prayer of an adult woman unless she cover her head.” ( Mishkat , iv. c. ix.) CORRUPTION OF THE SCRIP¬ TURES. Muhammadans charge the Jews and Christians with having altered their sacred books. The word used by Muham¬ madan writers for this supposed corruption of the sacred Scriptures of the Jews and Chris¬ tians is Tahrif. The Imam Fakhru ’d-din Razi, in his com¬ mentary, Tafsir-i-Kabir, explains Tahrif to mean “ to change, alter, or turn aside any¬ thing from the truth.” Muslim divines say there are two kinds of tahrif , namely, tah- rif-i-ma'nawi , a corruption of the meaning ; and tahrif-i-lafzi, a corruption of the words. Muhammadan controversialists, when they become acquainted with the nature of the contents of the sacred books of the Jews and Christians, and of the impossibility of recon¬ ciling the contents of the Qur’an with those of 62 CORRUPTION CREATION the sacred Scriptures, charge the Christians with the tahrif-i-lafzi. They saf the Christians have expunged the word uhmad from the prophecies, and have inserted the expression “ Son of God,” and the story of the crucifixion, death, and resurrection of our blessed Lord. This view, however, is not the one held by the most celebrated of the Mus¬ lim commentators. The Imam Muhammad Isina‘11 al-Bukhari (p. 1127, line 7), records that Ibn ‘Abbas said that “ the word Tahrif (corruption) signifies to change a thing from its original nature ; and that there is no man who could corrupt a single word of what proceeded from God so that the Jews and Christians could corrupt only by misrepresenting the meaning of the words of God.” Ibn Mazar and Ibn Abi Hatim state, in the commentary known as the Tafsir Durr-i- Manfur , that they have it on the authority of Ibn Muniyah, that the Taurat (i.e. the books of Moses), and the Injll (i.e. the Gospels), are in the same state of purity in which they were sent down from heaven, and that no altera¬ tions had been made in them, but that the Jews were wont to deceive the people by un¬ sound arguments, and by wresting the sense of Scripture. Shah WalTyu Tlah, in his commentary, the Fauzu * IrKabir , and also Ibn ‘Abbas, support tho same -view. This appears to be the correct interpreta¬ tion of the various verses of the Qur’an charging the Jews with having corrupted the meaning of the sacred Scriptures. For example, Suratu Ali ‘Imran (iii.), 72 : “ There are certuinly some of them who read the Scriptures perversely, that ye may think what they read to be really in the Scriptures, yet it is not in the Scriptures ; and they say this is from God, but it is not from God ; and they speak that which is false concerning God against their own knowledge." The Imam Fakhru ’d-din, in his commen¬ tary on this verse, and many others of the same character which occur in the Qur an, says it refers to a tahrif-i-ma'nawi, and that it does not mean that the Jews altered the text, but merely that they made alterations in the course of reading. But whilst all the old commentators, who most probably had never seen a copy of the sacred books of the Jews and L hiistians, onl\ charge them with a tuhrij-i-ina'nuwi, all modern controversialists amongst the Mu¬ hammadans contend for a tahrif -i-hifzi , as being the only solution of the difficulty. In dealing with such opponents, the Chris- tian divine will avail himself of the following arguments : — 1. The Qur’an does not charge the Jews and Christians *with corrupting the text of their sacred books ; and many learned Mus¬ lim commentators admit that such is not the Ca8e- .... TT . O * 2, The Qur’an asserts that the Holy Scrip¬ tures of the Jews and Christians existed in the days of Muhammad, who invariably 8pe«W* of them with reverence and respect. 3. There now exist manuscripts of the Old and New Testaments of an earlier date than that of Muhammad (a.d. 610-632.) 4. There are versions of the Old and New Testament now extant, which existed before Muhammad ; for example, the Septuagint, the Latin Vulgate, the Syriac, the Coptic, and the Armenian versions. 5. The Hexapla, or Octapla of Origen, which dates four centuries before Muhammad, gives various versions of the Old Testament Scrip¬ tures in parallel columns. 6. The Syrian Christians of St. Thomas, of Malabar and Travancoro, in the south of India, who were separated from the western world for centuries, possess the same Scrip¬ tures. 7. In the works of Justin Martyr, who lived from a.d. 103 to 167, there are nume¬ rous quotations from our sacred books, which prove that they were exactly the same as those we have now. The same may be said of other early Christian writers. Muhammadan controversialists of the pre¬ sent day urge that the numerous readings which exist in the Christian books are a proof that they have been corrupted. But these do not affect, in the least, the main points at issue between the Christian and the Muslim. The Divine Sonship of Christ, the Father¬ hood of God, the Crucifixion, Death, and Re¬ surrection of Christ, and the Atonement, are all clearly stated in almost every book of tho New Testament, whilst they are rejected by the Qur’an. The most plausible of modern objections urged by Muslim divines is, that the Chris¬ tians have lost the Injil which was sent down from heaven to Jesus ; and that the New Tes¬ tament contains merely the Iladis, or Sunnah — the traditions handed down by Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Paul, and others. It is, of course, a mere assertion, unsupported by any proof ; but it appears to be a line of argument which commends itself to many modern Muslims. CREATION. Arabic Khalquh. The following are the allusions to the Creation which occur in the Qur’an, Surah 1. 37: “Of old We (God) created the heavens and the earth and all that is between them in six days, and no wea¬ riness touched Us.” Surah xli. 8; “Do ye indeed disbelieve in Him who in two days created the earth ? Do ye assign Him equals ? The Lord of the World is He. And He hath placed on the earth the firm mountains which tower above it, and He hath blessed it, and distributed its nourishments throughout it (for the cravings of all are alike), in four days. Then He applied Himself to tho heaven, which was but smoke : and to it and to the earth He said, “Come ye, in obedience or against your will ? and they both said, u \ve come obedient.” And He completed them as seven heavens in two days, and in each heaven made known its office ; and W e furnished the lower heaven with light* and guardian angels. This is the disposition of the Almighty, the all-knowing one." Surah CEEED xvi. 3: “He created the heavens and the earth to set forth his truth, high let Him be exalted above tae gods they join with Him ! Man hath He created out of a moist germ ; yet lo 1 man is an open caviller. And the cattle ! for you hath He created them, &c . Shall He who Path created be as he who hath not created ? Will ye not consider i Surah xiii. 2 : “It is God who hath reared the heavens without pillars, thou canst behold ; then seated Himself upon His throne, and imposed laws on the sun and moon ; each travelleth to its appointeth goal. He ordereth all things. He maketh His signs clear. Haply ye will have firm faith in a meeting with your Lord. And He it is who hath out¬ stretched the earth, and placed on it the firm mountains, and rivers ; and of every fruit He hath placed on it twro kinds. He causeth the night to enshroud the day.” Surah xxxv. 12 : “ God created you of dust — then of the germs of life — then made you two sexes.” According to the Traditions ( Mishkat , xxiv. c. i. pt. 3), God created the earth on Satur¬ day, the hills on Sunday, the trees on Monday, all unpleasant things on Tuesday, the light on Wednesday, the beasts on Thursday, and Adam, who was the last of Creation, was created after the time of afternoon prayers on Friday. CREED. The Muhammadan Creed, or Kulimatu ’ sh-shahddah (shortly Kalimah ) is the well-known formula : — “ I testify that there is no deity but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God.” It is the belief of Muhammadans that the first part of this creed, which is called the naf 'i wa isbat, namely, “ There is no deity but God.” has been the expression of belief of every prophet since the days of Adam, and that the second portion has been changed according to the dispensation ; for example, that in the days of Moses it would be: “ There is no deity but God, and Moses is the Converser with God.” In the Christian dispensation it was : “ There is no deity but God, and Jesus is the Spirit of God.” Jabir relates that Muhammad said “the keys of Paradise are bearing witness that there is no deity but God.” The recital of the Kalimah, or Creed, is the first of five pillars of practical religion in Islam ; and when anyone is converted to Islam he is required to repeat this formula, and the following are the conditions required of every Muslim with reference to it : — 1. That it shall be repeated aloud, at least once in a life-time. 2. That the meaning of it shall be fully understood. 3. That it shall be believed in “ by the heart.” J 4. That it shall be professed until death. 6. That it shall be recited correctly. 6. 1 bat it shall be always professed and declared without hesitation. ( Sharhu 7- Wiqdyah.) CRUELTY 63 CREMATION. [burning the DEAD.] CRESCENT. The figure of the crescent is the Turkish symbol, and hence it has been regarded by Europeans as the spe¬ cial emblem of the Muhammadan religion, although it is unknown to the Muhammadans of the East. This figure, however, did not originate with the Turks, but it was the symbol of sovereignty in the city of Byzan¬ tium previous to the Muslim conquest, as may be seen from the medals struck in honour of Augustus Trajan and others. The crescent has been the symbol of three dif¬ ferent orders of knighthood ; the first of which Avas instituted by Charles I., King of Naples, a.d. 1268; the second in 1448 by Rene of Anjou ; the third by Sultan Selim in 1801. It must have been adopted by Mu¬ hammadans for the first time upon the over¬ throw of the Byzantine Empire by Muhammad II., and it is now generally used by the Turks as the insignia of their creed. CROCODILE. Arabic Timstih. The flesh of a crocodile is unlawful for food to a Muhammadan. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, iv. 74.) CROSS, The. Arabic As- Salih. The Qur’an denies the crucifixion of our blessed Lord [crucifixion], and it is related by al- Waqidi that Muhammad had such a repug¬ nance to the form of the cross that he broke everything brought into his house with that figure upon it. (Muir, iii. 61.) According to Abu Hurairah, the Prophet said, “ I SAvear by heaven, it is near, Avhen Jesus the Son of Mary will descend from heaven upon your people, a just king, and He will break the cross , and kill the sAvine. (Mishkdt, xxiii. c. vi.) The Imam Abu Yusuf says that if a cross or a crucifix is stolen from a church, amputation (the punish¬ ment for theft) is not incurred ; but if it is stolen from a private dwelling it is theft. (Hamilton's Iliddyah, vol. ii. p. DO.) CRUCIFIXION. The Crucifixion of the Lord Jesus Christ is denied by the teaching of the Qur’an, [jf.sus Christ.] It is a punishment sanctioned by the Muhamma¬ dan religion for higliAA’ay robbers. (Hamil¬ ton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. 131.) CRUELTY. A striking instance of the cruelty of Muhammad’s character occurs in a tradition given in the Sahihu 7- Bukhai'i (p. 1019). Anas relates, « Some of the people of the tribe of ‘Ukl came to the Prophet arid embraced Islam ; but the air of al-Madinah did not agree with them, and they wanted to 16ave the place. And the Prophet ordered them to go where the camels given in alms were assembled, and to drink their milk, which they did, and recovered from their sickness. But after this they became apo¬ states. and renounced Islam, and stole the camels. 1 hen the Prophet sent some people after them, and they were seized and brought 64 DAMASCUS DABBATU *L-ARZ back to al-Madinah. Then the Prophet ordered their hands and their feet to be cut off as a punishment for theft, and their eyes to be pulled out. But the Prophet did not stop the bleeding, and they died.” And in another it reads, “ The Prophet ordered hot irons to be drawn across their eyes, and then >o be cast on the plain of al-Madinah ; and when they asked for water it was not given them, and they died.” Sir William Muir (vol. iv. p. 307) says : “ Magnanimity or moderation are nowhere discernible as features in the conduct of Mu¬ hammad towards such of his enemies as failed to tender a timely allegiance. Over the bodies of the Quraish who fell at Badr he exulted with savage satisfaction ; and several prisoners, accused oi no crime but of scepti¬ cism and political opposition, were deliberately executed at his command. The Prince of Khaibar, after being subjected to inhuman torture for the purpose of discovering the treasures of his tribe, was, with his cousin, put to death on the pretext of having trea¬ cherously concealed them, and his wife .vas led away captive to the tent of the con¬ queror. Sentence of exile was enforced by Muhammad with rigorous severity on two whole Jewish tribes at al-Madinah ; and of a third, likewise his neighbours, the women and children were sold into distant captivity, while the men, amounting to several hundreds, were butchered in cold blood before his eyes.” DABBATU ’L-ARZ *U). Lit. “ The Reptile of the Earth.” A monster who shall arise in the last day, and shall cry unto the people of the earth that mankind have not believed in the revelations of God ( vide Qur’an, Surah xxvii. 84) : “ And when sentence falls upon them we will bring forth a beast out of the earth, that shall speak to them and say, ‘ Men of our signs would not be sure.’” According to the Traditions he will be the third sign of the coming resurrec¬ tion, and will come forth from the mountain of Sufah. (Mishkat, xxiii. c. iv.) Both Sale and Rodwell have confounded the Dabbatu ’1-Arz with Al-Jassasah, the spy, mentioned in a tradition by Fatimah ( Slishkdt , xxiii. c. iv.), and which is held to be a demon now inexistence, [al-jassasah.] For a descrip¬ tion of the Dabbah, see the article on the RESURRECTION. DABUK “ The West wind.” A term used by the Sufis to ex¬ press the lust of the flesh, and its overwhelm¬ ing power in the heart of man. (Abdu r- Razzaq’s Dictionary of Suf i Terms.) DAHHA (^&->). Plural of the Persian flJ, ten. The ten days of the Muharram, during which public mourning for ‘All and his sons is observed by Shrah Muhammadans. (Wilson’s Glossary oj Indian Terms.) ad-DAHR ( “ a long space of time.” A title given to the Lxxnth c m pt or of the Qur’an; called also Suratu 1- l.isan, “ The Chapter of Man.” The title is taken from the first verse of the chapter: “ Did not there pass over man a long space of time ? ” DAHRl 0ne who believes in the eternity of matter, and asserts that the duration of this world is from eternity, and denies the Day of Resurrection and Judg¬ ment ; an Atheist. ( Ghiydsu ’ l-Luqhdt , in loco.) DAIN ((^*>). A debt contracted with some definite term fixed for repayment, as distinguished from qarz , which is used for a loan given without any fixed term for re¬ payment. [debt.] DAJJAL ( JWo). Lit. “ false, lying.” The name given in the Uadis to certain religious impostors who shall appear in the world ; a term equivalent to our use of the word Antichrist. Muhammad is related to have said there would be about thirty. The Masihu ’ d-Dajjdl , or “ the lying Christ,” it is said, will be the last of the Dajjdls , for an account of whom refer to article on masihu ’d-dajjal. DALlL “ An argument ; a proof.” Dahl burhdnu, “ a convincing argu¬ ment.” Dahl qat*i, “ a decisive proof.” DAMASCUS. Arabic Dimashq According to Jalalu "d-din Suyufi, Damas¬ cus is the second sacred city in Syria, Jerusalem being the first; and some have thought it must be the “ Iram of the columns" mentioned in the Quran, Surah lxxxix. 6, although this is not the view of most Muslim writers. [iram.J Damascus is not mentioned in the Qur’an. With regard to the date of the erection of the city, Muham¬ madan historians differ. Some say it was built by a slave named Dimashq, who be¬ longed to Abraham, having been given to the patriarch by Nimrod; others say Di¬ mashq was a slave belonging to Alexander the Great, and that the city was built in his day. Damascus was taken by Khalid in the reign of the Khalifah ‘Umar, a.h. 13, and it became the capital of the Umaiyade Khalifahs under Mmawiyah, a.h. 41, and remained the chief city of Islam until the fall of that DAMASCUS DAMASCUS 65 dynasty, a.h. 132, when the Abbassides moved their capital first to al-Kufah and then to Bagdad. The great mosque at Damascus was erected by ‘Abdu ’1-Malik ibn Marwan, the fifth Kha- lifah of the Umaiyades. It was commenced a.h. 86, and finished in ten years, being erected on the ruins of an ancient Greek temple and of a Christian church. The account, as given by Jalalu 'd-din SuyutI, in his History of the Temple of Jeru¬ salem , is curious and interesting, showing that for a time the Muslims and Christians wor¬ shipped in the same building together. “ Here (in Damascus) all the servants of God joined, and built a church to worship God in. Some say, however, that this church was built by the Greeks : for ‘Abdu 'llah Ibn ‘Abbas, having marched against Damascus and besieged it, demolished the walls, after he had entered the city by storm. Then there fell down a stone, having certain letters inscribed thereon in the Greek language. They there¬ fore sent to bring a certain monk who could read Greek ; but he said, ‘ Bring me in pitch the impression of the letters on the stone, which he found to be as follows : ‘ Woe unto thee, mother of shame ! Pious is he who inflicts upon thee with usury the ill which God designs for thee in retribution. Woe unto thee from five eyes, who shall destroy thy wall after four thousand years.’ Now, ‘Abdu ’llah’s entire name was ‘Abdu ’llah Ibn ‘All Ibn ‘Abdi ’llah Ibn ‘Abbas Ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Muqallib. “ Again, the historian Ibn Isahir says : When God had granted unto the Muslims the possession, as conquerors of the whole of Syria, He granted them among other cities that of Damascus with its dependencies. Thus God sent down His mercy upon them, and the commander-in-chief of the army (besieging Damascus), who was either Abu ‘Ubaidah or, as some say, Khalid Ibn al-Walld, wrote a treaty of capitulation and articles of sur¬ render. By these he settled and appointed fourteen churches to remain in the hands of the Muslims. The church of which we have spoken above was left open and free for future consideration. This was on the plea that Khalid had entered the city at the sword s point by the eastern gate ; but that the Christians at the same time were allowed to surrender by Abu ‘Ubaidah, who entered at the western gate, opened under articles. This caused dissension ; but at length it was agreed that half the place should be regarded as having capitulated and half as stormed. “ The Muslims therefore took this church, and Abu ‘Ubaidah made it into a mosque. He was afterwards appointed Emir of Syria, and was the first who prayed here, all the company of Companions praying after him :n the open area, now called the Companions’ Tower; but the wall must then have been cut through, hard by the leaning tower, if the Companions really prayed in the ‘ blessed precinct. At first the Christians and Mus¬ lims entered by the same gate, which was ‘ the gate of Adoration and Prayer,’ over against the Qiblah, where the great tower now stands. Afterwards the Christians changed and went into their church by the gate facing the west ; the Muslims taking the right-hand mosque. But the Christians were not suf- ferred to chant aloud, or recite their books or strike their bells (or clappers), in order to honour the Companions with reverence and fear. Also. Mu‘awivah built in his days a house for the Amir, right opposite the mosque. Here he . built a green chapel. This palace was noted for its perfection. Here Mu‘awivah dwelt forty years ; nor did this state of things change from a.h. 14 to a.h. 86. But Al-Walld Ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Malik began to think of destroying the churches, and of adding some to those already in the hands of the Muslims, so as to construct one great mosque ; and this because some of the Muslims were sore troubled by bearing the recitations of the Christians from the Gospel, and their uplifted voices in prayer. He de¬ signed, therefore, to remove them from the Muslims and to annex this spot to the other, so as to make one great mosque. Therefore he called for the Christians, and asked them whether they would depart from those places which were in their hands, receiving in ex¬ change greater portions in lieu thereof ; and also retaining four churches not mentioned in* the treaty — the Church of Maria, the Church of the Crucified, just within the eastern gate, the church Tallu ’1-Habn, and the Church of the Glorious Mother, occupied previously by the burnishers. This, however, they vehe¬ mently refused to do. Thereupon the Khall- fah said, ‘Bring me then the treaty which you possess since the time of the Com¬ panions.’ They brought it, therefore, and it was read in al-Walld’s presence; when, lo ! the Church of Thomas, outside the gate of Thomas, hard by the river, did not enter into the treaty, and was one of those called ‘the greater of churches left upon’ (for future disposal). ‘There,’ he said, ‘this will I destroy and convert it into a mosque.’ They said, ‘ Nay, let it alone, 0 commander of the Faithful, even although not mentioned among the churches, for we are content that you take the chapel of the church.’ To this agree¬ ment, then, he held them, and received from them the Qubbah (or chapel vault, dome) of the church. Then he summoned workmen able to pull down, and assembled all the amirs, chiefs, and great men. But the Chris¬ tian bishops and priests coming, said ‘ O commander of the Faithful, we find in’ our books that whosoever shall demolish this church will go mad.’ Then said the Khali- fah’ ‘ And 1 am ver.V filing to be mad with Gods inspiration; therefore no one shall demolish it before me.’ Then he ascended the western tower, which had two spires and contained a monastic cell. Here he found a monk, whom he ordered to descend, The monk making difficulties, and linger¬ ing al-Walid took him by the back of his neck, and ceased not pushing him until he had thrown him down stairs. Then ho ascended to the most lofty spot in the church above the great altar, called ‘the Altar of 66 DAMASCUS DAMAS0U8 the Martyrs.’ Here he seized the ends of his sash, which was of a bright yellow colour, and fixed them into his belt. Taking, then, an axe into his hand, he struck against the very topmost stone, and brought it down. Then he called the amirs, and desired them to pull down the building as quickly as pos¬ sible. Hereupon all the Muslims shouted, ‘ God is great ! ’ three times ; also the Chris¬ tians loudly cried out with their wailing and woe upon the steps of Jairun, where they had assembled. Al-Walid therefore desired the commander of his guard to inflict blows upon them until they should depart, which he did. The Muslims then demolished all that the Christians had built in the great square here — altars and buildings and cloisters — until the whole square was one flat surface. He then resolved to build a splendid pile, un¬ rivalled for beauty of architecture, which none could hereafter surpass. Al-Walid therefore commissioned the most eminent architects and mathematicians to build the mosque, according to the model they most preferred. His brother chiefly moved and stirred him up to this undertaking, and next to him presided Sulaimiin ‘Abdu ’1-Malik. It is said that al-Walid sent to the king of Greece to demand stone-masons and other workmen, for the purpose of building this mosque in the way he desired, sending word, that if the king refused, he would overrun his territory with his army, and reduce to utter ruin every church in his dominions, even the Church of the Holy City, and the Church of Edessa, and utterly destroy every vestige of the Greeks still remaining. The king of Greece, sent, therefore, numerous workmen, with a letter, expressing himself thus : * If thy father knoweth what thoudoest, and per¬ mits it, then tmly I accuse him of disgraceful conduct, and blame him more than thee. If he understandeth it not, but thou only art conscious, then I blame thee above him.’ When the letter came to al-Walid, he wished to reply unto it, and assembled several per¬ sons for consultation. One of these was a well-known poet, who said, * I will answer him, 0 Commander of the Faithful! out of the Book of God.’ So said al-Walid, ‘ Where, then, is that answer? ’ He replied this verse, ‘David and Solomon, lo ! they assume a right to the corn-field, a right to the place whore the people are shearing their sheep. Also, wo are witnesses of their decree ; for Solo¬ mon hath given us to understand it, and both (David and Solomon) have come to us as judges and learned men.’ Al-Walid, by this reply, caused great surprise to the king of Greece. Al-Firsuk alludes to this in these verses : — “ I have made a separation between the Christians and their churches, and between the people who shine and those who are in dark¬ ness.” “ I neglected for a season thus to apportion their happiness, I being a procrastinating vin¬ dicator of their grievances.” “ Thy Lord hath made thee to resolve upon removing their churches from those mosques wherein good words are recited.” “ Whilst they were together in one place, some were praying and prostrating themselves on their faces, slightly separated from others who, behold ! were adoring God and idols.” “ How siiall the people of the Cross unite to ring their bells, when the reading of the Qur’an is perpetually intermingled ? ” “ I resolved then to remove them, just as did those wise men when they decreed them¬ selves a right to the seed-field and the flocks.” “ When al-Walid resolved to build the chapel which is in the midst of the cloister, called ‘the Vulture’s Chapel’ (a name given to it by the country-people, because the por¬ ticos on each side look like two wings), he dug deep at the four corners of the intended chapel, until they came to sweet and limpid water. Here they first placed the foundation of the wall of the vineyard. Upon this they built with stone, and when the four corners were of sufficient height, they then built thereon the chapel ; but lit fell down again. Then said al-Walid to some one of the mathe¬ maticians, who well knew the plan of the Vulture's Chapel, *1 wish you to build this chapel; for the injunction of God hath been given me, and I am confident that no one but thyself may build it.’ He therefore built the four corners, and covered them with wicker, and disappeared for a whole year, al-Walid not knowing where he was. After a year, al-Walid dug down to the four corner foun¬ dations. Then he (i.e. the architect) said, ‘ Do not be in a hurry, 0 commander of the Faithful!’ Then he found the mathemati¬ cian, who had a man’s head with him. He came to the four corners, and uncovered the wicker work, and lo ! all that had been built above the earth had fallen down, until they were on a level with the earth. So he said, ‘ From this (work have I come).’ Then he proceeded to build, and firmly fixed and sup¬ ported a beautiful fabric. “ Some person also said a.-\Nalid wished to construct a brilliant chapel of pure gold, whereby the rank of the mosque might be magnified. Hereupon the superintendent said unto him, ‘You cannot effect this.’ I pon which al-Walid struck him fifty blows with a whip, saying, ‘ Am I then incapable of effect¬ ing this?’ The man replied, ‘Certainly.’ Then he said, ‘ I will, then, find out a way to know the truth. Bring forth all the gold thou hast’; which he did: and al-Walid melted it, and formed it into one large brick, which contained one thousand pieces of gold. But the man said, ‘O Commander of the Faithful ! we shall require so many thousand bricks of this sort, if thou dost possess them ; nor will this suffice for our work. Al-Walid seeing that he was true and just, presented him with fifty dinars; and when al-Wahd roofed the great precinct, he adorned the roof, as well as the whole extent of the pave¬ ment. with a surface of gold. Some of al- Walid’s family also said unto him, ‘ They who come after thee will emulate thee in rendering the outer roof of this mosque more commodious every year.’ Upon this al-Walid ordered all the DAMASCUS DAMASCUS 67 lead of the country to be collected together, ir order to construct therewith an exterior out¬ ward covering, answering to the interior, which should be light upon the root, and on the side-posts that supported the roof. So they collected lead throughout all Syria and many other countries ; and whilst they were returning, they met with a certain woman who possessed a weight of lead — a weight of many talents. They began to chaffer with the woman for it ; but she refused to sell it, except for its weight in silver. So they wrote to the Commander of the Faithful, in¬ forming him of this, who replied, ‘ Buy it from her, even for its weight in silver.’ When, then, they offered this sum unto her, she said, ‘ Now that you have agreed to my pro¬ posal, and are satisfied to give the weight in silver, I give the weight as an offering unto God, to serve for the roof of the mosque.’ Hereupon they marked one corner of the weight with the impression of a seal, ‘ This is God’s.’ Some say the woman was an Israelite ; some say that they sought for lead in open ditches or holes, and came to a stone sepulchre, within which was a leaden sepulchre, whence they brought forth a dead body, and laid it on the ground. Whilst drag¬ ging it out, the head fell to the ground, and the neck being broken, much blood flowed forth from the mouth, which terrified them so much, that they rapidly fled away. This is said to have been the burial-place of King Saul. Also, the guardian of the mosque came unto al-Walid and said, ‘0 Commander of the Faithful! men say that al-Walid hath ex¬ pended the money of the treasury unjustly.’ Hereupon al-Walid desired that all the people should be summoned to prayer. When all were assembled, al-Walid mounted the pulpit, and said, ‘ Such and such reports have reached me.’ Then he said, ‘ 0 ‘Umar Ibn al-Muhajir 1 stand up and produce the money of the treasury.’ Now it was carried upon mules. Therefore, pieces of hide being placed, in the midst, beneath the chapel, he poured out all the gold and silver, to such a height, that those who stood on either side could not see one another. Scales being then brought out, the whole was weighed, when it was found that the amount would suffice for the public use for three years to come, even if nothing were added to the amount. Then all the people rejoiced, praising and glorifying God for this. Then said the Khalifah, ‘ 0 people of Damascus ! you boast among men of four things ; of your air, of your water, of your cheerfulness, and of your gracefulness. Would that you would add to these a fifth, and become of the number of those who praise God, and are liberal in his service. Would that, thus changing, you would become thank¬ ful suppliants.’ “ In the Qiblah of this mosque were three golden scimitars, enamelled in lapis lazuli. Upon each scimitar was engraved the following sentence : ‘ In the name of God, the Merciful and Compassionate ! There is no god but God. He is the ever¬ ting, the self-subsisting Being, who never slumbers nor sleeps. There is no god but God. He has no partner. WTe will never adore any but our Lord, the one God. Our faith is Islam, and our Prophet is Muhammad. This mosque was built, and the churches which stood on the site of the chapel were demolished, by order of the servant of_ God, the Commander of the Faithful, al-Walid Ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Malik Ibn Marwan, in the month Zu ’1-Qa‘dah, a.h. 86.’ Upon another tablet was inscribed the whole of the first chapter of the Qur’an. Here also were depicted the stars, then the morning twilight, then the spiral course of the sun, then the way of living which obtained after the arrival of the Faithful at Damascus. Also, it is said, that all the floor of this mosque was divided into small slabs, and that the stone (carving) of the walls extended to the utmost pin¬ nacle. Above was a great golden vine, and above this were splendid enamelled knobs of green, red, blue, and white, whereby were figured and expressed all countries and regions, especially the Ka‘bah, above the tower ; also all the countries to the right and left (of Makkah), and all the most beautiful shrubs and trees of every region, famous either for their fruits or flowers. The roof had cornices of gold. Here was suspended a chain of gold and silver, which branched off into seven separate lights. In the tower of the Companions were two stones — beryls (some say they were the jewels called pearls); they were called ‘ The Little Ones.’ When the candles were put out, they inflamed the eyes by their brilliant light. In the time of al-Amln Ibn ar-Rashid, Sulaiman, captain of the guard, was sent by that Khalifah to Da¬ mascus, to steal those stones and bring them to him'; which he did. When al-Ma’rdun dis¬ covered this, ho sent them to Damascus, as a proof of his brother’s misconduct. They afterwards again vanished, and in their place is a- glass vessel. In this mosque all the gates, from the dome (gallery) unto the en¬ trance, are open, and have no bars or locks. Over each is a loose curtain. In like manner there is a curtain upon all the walls as far as the bases of the golden vine, above which are the enamelled knobs. The capitals of the pillars were thickly covered with dead gild¬ ing. Here were also small galleries, to look down from, enclosed on the four sides of the skirting wall. Al-Walid also built the northern minaret, now called ‘the Bride¬ groom's Tower.’ As to the western gallery, that existed many ages before, in each corner of this was a cell, raised upon very lofty walls, and used by the Greeks as an observatory. The two northern of these fell, w and the two opposite remained. In the year 740, part of the* eastern had been burnt. It then fell down, but was built up anew out of the Christians’ money, because they had me¬ ditated the destruction (of it) by fire. It then was restored after a most beautiful plan. Tnis is the tower (but God knowrs) upon which Jesus son of Maria will alight, for Mu¬ hammad is reported to have said, ‘ I saw Jesus son of Maria come forth from near the 08 DAMASCUS DAMASCU8 white minaret, east of the mosque, placing his hands upon the wings of two angels, firmly bound to him. Upon him was the Divine glory (the Shechinah). He was marked by the red tinge of baptism. This is the mark of original sin.’ Jesus (it is also said) shall come forth from the White Tower by the eastern gate, and shall enter the mosque. Then shall the word come forth for Jesus to fight with Antichrist at the corner of the city, as long as it shall please God. Now, when this mosque (the slaves’ mosque) was completed, there was not to be found upon the face of the earth a building more beau¬ tiful, more splendid, more graceful, than this. On whatever side, or area, or place, the spec¬ tator looked, he still thought that side or spot the most preferable for beauty. In this mosque were certain talismans, placed therein since the time of the Greeks ; so that no veno¬ mous or stinging creature could by any means obtain entrance into this enclosure, neither serpent, scorpion, beetle, nor spider. They say, also, that neither sparrows nor pigeons built their nests there, nor was anything to be found there which could annoy people. Most, or all, of those talismans were burnt by the fire that consumed the mosque, which fire took place in the night of Sha-ban, a.u. 461. Al-Walid frequently prayed in the mosque. One night (it is related) he said to his people, ‘ I wish to pray to-night in the mosque ; let no one remain there whilst I pray therein.’ So when he came unto the gate of the Two Moments, he desired the gate to be opened, and entering in, he saw a man standing between the gate of the Two Moments and the gate of St. George, praying. He was rather nearer to the gate of St. George than to the other. So the Khalifah said unto his people, ‘ Did I not charge you that no one should remain whilst I was pray¬ ing in the mosque ? ’ Then one of them said, ‘O Commander of the Faithful! this is St George, who prays every night in the mosque.' Again, one prayer in this mosque equals thirty thousand prayers. “ Again. A certain man, going out of the gate of the mosque which is near the Jairiin, met Ka‘b the scribe, who said, ‘Whither bound?* Ho replied, ‘To the Baitu 1-Mu- qaddas, therein to pray.’ Then said Ka*b, ‘I will show you a spot wherein whosoever prayeth shall receive the same blessings as if he prayed in the Baitu ’1-Muqaddas.’ The man, therefore, went with him. Then Ka’b showed him the space between the little gate from whence you go to Abyssinia, that is, the space covered by the arch of the gate, containing about one hundred yards, to the west, and said, * W hoso prayeth within those two points shall be regarded as praying within the Baitu ’1-Muqaddas.’ Now, this spot is said to be a spot fit to be sought by pilgrims. Here, it is asserted, is the head of John, son of Zacharias (Peace be with him !). For al- Walid Ibn Muslim being desired to show where John’s head was to be found, pointed with his hand to the plastered pillar— the fourth from the east corner. Zaid Ibn Wakad says, ‘ At the time it was proposed to build the mosque of Damascus, I saw the head of John, son of Zacharias, brought forth from underneath one of the corners of the chapel. The hair of the head was unchanged.’ He says in another place, ‘ Being nominated bv al-W a lid superintendent of the building, we found a cave, of which discovery' we informed al-W alid. He came, therefore, unto us at night, with a wax taper in his hand. Upon descending we found an elaborately carved little shrine, three within three (i.e. within the first a second, within the second a thirds W ithin this last was a sarcophagus, and within this a casket ; within which was the head of John, son of Zacharias. Over the casket was written, “ Here is the head of John, son of Zacharias. Peace be with him ! ” By al-W alid’s command we restored the head to the spot whence it had been taken. The pillars which are above this spot are inclined obliquely to the others to distinguish the place. There is also over it a pillar with a head in plaster.’ Ho asserts again, that when the happy event occurred of the con¬ quest of Damascus, a certain person went up the stairs which led to the church, then standing where the mosque now stands. Here th,e blood of John, son of Zacharias was seen to tlow in torrents and to boil up, nor did the blood sink down and become still until that seventy thousand had been slain over him. The spot where the head was found is now called al-Sakasak (perhaps, the Nail of the Narrow Cave). “ In the days of ‘Umar, the Christians re¬ quested that he would confirm their claim to the right of meeting in those places which al- W'alid had taken from them and converted into mosques. They, therefore, claimed the whole inner area as their own from ‘Umar. The latter thought it right to restore them what al-W’alid had taken from them, but upon examination he found that the churches without the suburbs were not comprehended in the articles of surrender by the Compa¬ nions, such, for example, as the great Church of the Monastery of (Jbservants or Carmelites, m the Church of the Convent behind the Church of St. Thomas, and all the churches of the neighbouring villages. ‘Umar therefore gave them the choice, either to restore them the churches they demanded, demolishing in that case all the other churches, or to leave those churches unmolested, and to receive from them a full consent to the free use of the open space by the Muslims. To this latter pro¬ posal they, after three days deliberation, agreed : and proper writings were drawn up on both sides. They gave the Muslims a deed of grant, and ‘Umar gave them full security and assurance of protection. Nothing was to be compared to this mosque. It is said to be one of the strongholds of Paradise, and that no inhabitant of Damascus would long for Paradise when he looks upon his beautiful mosque. Al-Ma’mun came to Damascus in company with his brother al- Mu'tasim, and the l^azi Yahya Ibn Aksam. Whilst viewing the mosquo he said, * ''hat is DANCING the most wondrous sight here ? ’ His brother- said, ‘ These offerings and pledges.’ ^ The Qa?i said, ‘ The marble and the columns. ’ Then said al-Ma’mun, ‘ The most wondrous thing to me is, whether any other could be built at all like this.’ ” {hist. Temple of Jerusalem, by Jalalu ’d-din, translated by Reynolds, p. 407.) DANCING. Arabic Rags. Dancing is generally held to be unlawful, although it does not appear to be forbidden in either the Qur'an or the Traditions, but according to al-Bukharl (Arabic ed., p. 135), the Prophet expressly permitted it on the day of the great festival. Those who hold it to be unlawful quote the following verse from the Qur’an, Surah xvii. 39, “ Walk not proudly on the earth,” as a prohibition, although it does not seem to refer to the subject. The Sufis make dancing a religious exercise, but the Sunni Muslims consider it unlawful. {Hidayatu 's-Sail, p. 107.) DANIEL. Arabic Ddniydl. A prophet celebrated amongst Muhammadans as an interpreter of dreams. He is not men¬ tioned in either the Qur’an or the Traditions, but in the Qflsasu 'l-Ambiya', p. 231, it is stated that in the reign of Bukhtu Nassar (Nebuchadnezzer) he was imprisoned ; and when he was in prison, the king had a dream which he had forgotten, and hearing that Daniel was an interpreter of dreams, he sent for him. When Daniel was in the }:>resence of the King, he refused to prostrate, saying, it was lawful to prostrate alone to the Lord Almighty. For this he nearly lost his life, but was spared to interpret the king’s dream, which was as follows : “ He saw a great idol, the head of which was of gold, above the navel of silver, below- the navel of copper, the legs of iron, and the feet of clay. And sud¬ denly a stone fell from heaven upon the idol, and ground it to powder, and mixed all the substances, so that the wind blew them in all directions; but 'he stone grew gradually, and to such an extent that it covered the whole earth.’ The interpretation of it, as given by Daniel ip said to be this : The idol represented different nations ; the gold was the kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar, the silver the kingdom of his son, the copper the Romans, the iron the Persians, and the clay the tribe Zauzan, from which the kings of Persia and Rome should be descended ; the great stone being a religion which should spread itself over the whole earth in the last day. DAR ()U). “A house, dwelling, habitation, land, country.” A word which is used in various combinations, e.g. : — nd-Dar . The abode — the city oi al-Madinah. The two abodes — this world and the next. A seat of learning ; a university. The abode which re- maineth — heaven. The abode which passetl away — earth. ad-Ddrain Ddru 'l-adab Ddru ’ l-baga ’ Ddru ’ l-fana DARU ’L-HARB 69 The abode of delusion — the world. The vale of te^rs — the earth. The abode of temptation — the world. The seat of the Imam or . Khalifah — capital A library. The home of eternity— Paradise. The blessed abode — Pa¬ radise. The Qazi’s court. A hospital The abode of joy — Para¬ dise. A mint. A banqueting-room. DARU ’L-HARB, DARU ’L- ISLAM, DARU ’L-QARAR, DARU ’S-8ALAM, DARU ’S-SALTANAH, DARU ’g-SAWAB.] Ddru ’ l-ghurur . Ddru ’ l-huzn Ddru ’ l-ibtila . Ddru ’ l-khilafah Ddru ’ l-kutub . Ddru ’ l-fchuld . ad- Ddru 'n-na'lm Ddru ’ l-qaza ’ Ddru ’ sh-shifa ’ Ddru 's-surur Ddru ’ z-zarb Ddru ’ z-ziydfah [daru ’l-bawar, DARGAH A royal court (Persian). In India it is a term used for a Muhammadan shrine or tomb of some reputed holy person, and which is the object of pil¬ grimage and adoration. (Wilson’s Glossary of Indian Terms.) DARU ’L-BAWAR (^V j\S). Lit. “ The abode of perdition.” A term used for hell in the Qur'an, Surah xiv. 33 : “ And have made their people to alight at the abode of perdition .” DARU ’L-HARB jU). “The land of w-arfare.” According to the Dictionary Ghiyasu ’ l-Lughat , Ddru ’ l-harb is “ a country belonging to infidels which has not been subdued by Islam.*’ According to the Qamus, it is “ a country in which peace has not been proclaimed between Muslims and unbelievers.” In the Fatawa'Alamgiri, vol. li. p. 854, it is written that a Ddru l-harb becomes a Ddru ’ l- Islam on one condition, namely, the promul¬ gation of the edicts of Islam. The Tm«m Muhammad, in his book called the Ziyddah, says a Ddru 'l-lslam again becomes a Daru 7- harb , according to Abu Hanifah, on three conditions, namely : (1) That the edicts of the unbelievers be promulgated, and the edicts of Islam be suppressed ; (2) That the country in question be adjoining a Ddru ’ l-harb and no other Muslim country lie between them (that is, when the duty of Jihad or religious war becomes incumbent on them, and they have not the power to carry it on). (3) That no protection (arnan) remains for either a Muslim oi a zimmi ; viz. that amanu 'l-awwal , or that first protection which was given them when the country was first conquered by Islam. The Imams \ usuf and Muhammad both s&y that when the edicts of unbelievers are promul- gated in a country, it is sufficient to consti¬ tute it a Ddru 'l-harb. In the Raddu 'l-Mukhtari vol. iii. p, 39] ft is stated, “ If the edicts of Islam remain ir force, together with the edicts of the unbe¬ lievers. then the country cannot be said to be 70 daru ’l-islam. a Ddru ’ l-harb ." The important question ah to whether a country in the position of Hin¬ dustan may be considered a Ddru ’ l- Islam or a Ddru '1-h.arb has been fully discussed by Dr. W. W. Hunter, of the Bengal Civil Ser¬ vice, in his work entitled, Indian Musulmdns , which is the result of careful inquiry as to the necessary conditions of a Jihad, or a Crescentade, instituted at the time of the excitement which existed in India in 1870-71, in consequence of a Wahhabi con¬ spiracy for the overthrow of Christian rule in that country. The whole matter, according to the Sunni Musulmans, hinges upon the question whether India is Ddru ' l-harb , “ a land of warfare,” or Ddru ’ l-Isldm , “ a land of Islam.” The Muftis belonging to the Hanifi and ShafiT sects at Makkah decided that, “ as long as even some of the peculiar observances of Islam prevail in a country, it is Ddru 'l- Islam." The decision of the Mufti of the Maliki sect was very similar, being to the following effect : “ A country does not become Ddru ’ l-harb as soon as it passes into the hands of the infidels, but when all or most of the injunc¬ tions of Islam disappear therefrom.” The law doctors of North India decided that, “ the absence of protection and liberty to Musulmans is essential in a Jihad, or reli¬ gious war, and also that there should be a probability of victory to the armies of Islam.” The Shi‘ah decision on the subject was as follows: “A Jihad is lawful only when the armies of Islam are led by the rightful Imam, when arms and ammunitions of war and ex¬ perienced warriors are ready, when it is against the enemies of God, when ho who makes war is in possession of his reason, and when he has secured the permission of his parents, and has sufficient money to meet the expenses of his journey.” The Sunnis and Shi‘ahs alike believe in the eventual triumph of Islam, when the whole world shall become followers of the Prophet of Arabia; but whilst the Sunnis are, of course, ready to undertake the accomplishment of this great end, “ whenever there is a probability of victory to the Mu¬ sulmans,” the Shhahs, true to the one great principle of their sect, must wait until the appearance of a rightful Imam, [jihad.] DARU ’L-ISLAM <>S — -S' ,'•>)• “ Land of Islam.” According to the Raddu 7- Mukhtdr , vol. iii. p. 391, it is a country in which the edicts of Islam are fully pro¬ mulgated. In a state brought under Muslims, all those who do not embrace the faith are placed under certain disabilities. They can worship God according to their own customs, provided they are not idolaters ; but it must be done without any ostentation, and, whilst churches and synagogues may be repaired, no new place of worship can be erected. “ The construction of churches, or synagogues, in Muslim terri¬ tory is unlawful, this being forbidden in the Traditions ; but if places of worship belong¬ ing to Jews, or Christians, be destroyed, or DAUGHTERS fall into decay, they are at liberty to repair them, because buildings cannot endure for ever.” Idol temples must be destroyed, and idolatry suppressed by force in all countries ruled according to strict Muslim law. (Hi- dayah, vol. ii. p. 219.) For further particulars, see article daru ’l-harb. DARU ’L-QARAR ». ” The abode that abideth.” An expression which occurs in the Qur’an, Surah xl. 42: “ 0 my people ! this present life is only a passing joy, but the life to come is the mansion that abideth." DARU ’S-3ALAM - l\ ». “ The abode of peace.” An expression which occurs in the Qur’an, Surah vi. 127 : “ For them is a dwelling of peace with their Lord ! and in recompense for their works, shall He be their protector.” DARU ’S-SALTANAH (WJU^U). “ The seat of government.” A term given to the capital of a province, or a Muslim state. DARU ’S-SAWAB $*)• “ The house of recompense.” A name given to the Jannatu *Adn, or Garden of Eden, by the commentator al-Baizawi. DARVESH, DARWISH (^o). A Persian word for a religious mendicant. A dervesh. It is derived from the word dar, “a door”; lit. one who goes from door to door. Amongst religious Muhammadans, the darvesh is called a Jaqir, which is the word generally used for religious mendicant orders in Arabic books. The subject is, therefore, considered in the article on FAyiR. DAUGHTERS. Arabic Bint, pi. Bandt ; Heb. Bath (j-q). the law of inheritance, the position of a daughter is secured by a verse in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 12: “ With regard to your children, God has commauded you to give the sons the portion of two daughters, and if there be daughters, more than two, then they shall have two-thirds of that which their father hath left, but if she be an only daughter she shall have the half.’’ The Sirdjiyah explains tho above as follows : — “ Daughters begotten by the deceased take in three cases: half goes to one only, and two- thirds to two or more : and, if there be a son, the male has the share of two females, and he makes them residuaries. The son’s daughters are like the daughters begotten by the deceased ; and they may be in six cases : half goes to one only, and two-thirds to two or more, on failure of daughters be¬ gotten by the deceased ; with a single daugh¬ ter of the deceased, they have a sixth, com¬ pleting (with the daughter’s half) two-thirds; but, with two daughters of the deceased, they have no share of the inheritance, unless there be, in «n equal degree with, or in a lower DAUGHTERS DAVID 71 degree than, them, a boy, who makes them residuaries. As to the remainder between them, the male has the portion of two females; and all of the son’s daughters are excluded by the sdn himself. “ If a man leave three son’s daughters, some of them in lower degrees than others, and three daughters of the son of another Bon, some of them in lower degree than others, and three daughters of the son’s son of another son, some of them in lower degrees than others, as in the following table, this is called the case of tashbih. First set. Second set. Third set. Son. Son. Son. Son, daughter. Son. Son Son, daughter. Son, daughter. Son. Son, daughter. Son, daughter. Son, daughter. Son, daughter. Son, daughter. Son, daughter. “Here the eldest of the first line has none equal in degree with her ; the middle one of the first line is equalled in degree by the eldest of the second, and the youngest of the first line is equalled by the middle one of the second, and by the eldest of the third line ; the youngest of the second line is equalled by the middle one of the third line, and the youngest of the third set has no equal in degree. When thou hast comprehended this, then we say : the eldest of the first line has a moiety ; the middle one of the first line has a sixth, together with her equal in degree, to make up two-thirds ; and those in lower degrees never take anything, unless there be a son with them, who makes them residua¬ ries, both her who is equal to him in degree, and her who is above him, but who is not entitled to a share ; those below him are ex¬ cluded.” (Ramsay's ed. As-Sirdjiyah .) The age of puberty, or majority, of a daughter is established by the usual signs of womanhood; but in the absence of these signs, according to I bu Hanifah, she is not of age until she is eighteen. But the two Imams, Muhammad and Yusuf, fix the age at fifteen, and with this opinion the Imam ash-ShafiT agrees. * With regard to a daughter’s freedom in a marriage contract, Shaikh ‘Abdu ’1-IIaqq, in his commentary on the Traditions (vol. iii. p. 105), says, “ All the learned doctors are agreed that a virgin daughter, until she has arrived at the age of puberty, is entirely at the disposal of her father or lawful guardian, but that in the event of a woman having been left a widow after she has attained the age of puberty, she is entirely at liberty to marry whom she likes.” There is, however, he says, some difference of opinion as to the free¬ dom of a girl who has not been married and haR arrived at the age of puberty. Abu Hanifah rules that she is entirely free from the control of her guardian with regard to her marriage, but ash-Shafi‘i rules otherwise. Again, as regards a widow who is not of age, Abu Hanifah says she cannot marry without her guardian’s permission, but ash- Shafi'i says she is free. According to the teaching of the Prophet, a virgin daughter gives her consent to mar¬ riage by silence.” He also taught “ that a woman ripe in years shall have her consent asked, and if she remain silent her silence is consent, but if she do not consent, she shall not be forced.” But this tradition is also to be compared with another, in which he said, “ There is no marriage without the permission of the guardians.” ( Mishkat , xiii. c. iv. pt. 2.) Hence the difference between the learned doctors on this subject. The author of the Afchlaq-i-Jalali says it is not advisable to teach girls to read and write, and this is the general feeling amongst Muhammadans in all parts of the world, although it is considered right to enable them to recite the Qur’an and the liturgical prayers. The father or guardian is to be blamed who does not marry his daughter at an early age, for Muhammad is related to have said, “ It is written in the Book of Moses, that who¬ soever does not marry his daughter when she hath reached the age of twelve years is re¬ sponsible for an}r sin she may commit.” The ancient Arabs used to call the angels the “ daughters of God.” and objected strongly, as the Badawis do in the present day, to female offspring, and they used to bury their infant daughters alive. These practices Mu¬ hammad reprobates in the Qur’an, Surah xvi. 59: “ And they ascribe daughters unto God 1 Glory be to Him ! But they desire them not for themselves. For when the birth of a daughter is announced to any -one of them, dark shadows settle on his face, and he is sad ; he hideth him from the people because of the ill tidings. Shall he keep it with disgrace, or bury it in the dust ? Are not their judg¬ ments wrong ? ” Mr. Rodwell remarks on this verse : “Thus Rabbinism teaches that to be a woman is a great degradation. The modern Jew says in his Daily Prayers, fol. 5, fi, “ Blessed art thou. O Lord our God ! King of the Universe ! who hath not made me a woman.” DU MAH A fortified town held by the Christian chief Ukaidar, who was defeated by the Muslim general Khalid, and by him converted to Muhammadanism, A.n. 9. But the mercenary character of Ukaidar’s conversion led him to revolt after Muham¬ mad s death. (Muir s Life of Mahomet, vol. iv. p. 191.) DAVID. Arabic Davrud, or Da wiid. A king of Israel and a Prophet, to whom God revealed the Zabur , or Book of I salms. [zabur.] He has no special title or kahmahy as all Muslims are agreed that he was not a law-giver or the founder of a dispensation. The account of him in the Qur an is exceedingly meagre. It is gi' en as follows, with the commentator’s remarks translated in italics by Mr. Lane “ And God gave him {David) the kingship over the children of Israel , and wisdom, after the death of Samuel and Saul , and they 72 DAVID DA'WAH [namely these two gifts] had not been given together to any one before him ; and He taught him what He pleased, as the art of making coats of mail , and the language of birds. And were it not for God’s repelling men, one by another, surely the earth had become corrupt by the predominance of the polytheists and the slaughter of the Muslims and the ruin of the places of worship: but God is beneficent to the peoples, and hath repelled some by others (Surah ii. 227.) “ Hath the story of the two opposing parties come unto thee, when they ascended over the walls of the oratory of David , having been pre¬ vented going in unto him by the door , because of his being engaged in devotion ? When they went in unto David, and he was frightened at them, they said, Fear not: we are two oppos¬ ing parties. It is said that they were two parties of more than one each ; and it is said that they were two individuals, angels, who came as two litigants, to admonish David, who had ninety-nine wives, and had desired the wife of a person who had none but her, and married her and taken her as his wife. [One of them said,] One of us hath wronged the other ; therefore judge between us with truth, and be not unjust, but direct us into the right way. Verily this my brother in religion had nine-and-ninety ewes, and I had one ewe; and he said, Make me her keeper. And he over¬ came me in the dispute. — And the other con¬ fessed him to have spoken truth. — [David] said, Verily he hath wronged thee in demand¬ ing thy ewe to add her to his ewes ; and verily many associates wrong one anotheP, except those who believe and do righteous deeds : and few indeed are they. — And the two angels said, ascending in their [proper or assumed] forms to heaven, The man hath passed sentence against himself. So David was admonished. And David perceived that We had tried him by his love of that woman ; wherefore he asked pardon of his Lord, and fell down bowing himself (or prostrating himself), and repented. So We forgave him that; and verily for him [was ordained] a high rank with Us (that is, an increase of good fortune in this world), and [there shall be for him] an excellent retreat in the world to come." (Surah xxxviii. 20-24.) “ We compelled the mountains to glorify Us, with David, and the birds also, on his com¬ manding them to do so, when he experienced languor ; and We did this. And W e taught him the art of making coats of mail ( for before his time plates oj metal were used) for you among mankind in general, that they might defend you from your suffering in warring with your enemies. — Will ye then, 0 people of Mecca, be thankful for My favours, believing the apostles?" (Surah xxi. 79, 80.) Sale observes that Yahyathe commentator, most rationally understands hereby the divine revelations which David received from God, and not the art of making coats of mail. — The cause of his applying himself to this art is thus related in the Mirdtu ’ z-Zamdn He used to go forth in disguise; and when he found any people who knew him not, he ap¬ proached them and asked them respecting the conduct of David, and they praised him and prayed for him ; but one day, as he was asking questions respecting himself as usual, God sent to him an angel in the form of a human being, who said, « An excellent man were David if he did not take from the public treasury.” Whereupon the heart of David was contracted, and he begged of God to render him independent : so He made iron soft to him, and it became in his hands as thread ; and he used to sell a coat of mail for four thousand [pieces of money — whether gold or silver is not said], and. with part of this he obtained food for himself, and part he gave in alms, and with part he fed his family. Hence an excellent coat of mail is often called by the Arabs “ Dawudi,” i.e. “ Davidean." (See Lane’s translation of The Thousand and One Nights, chap. viii. note 5.) David, it is said, divided his time regularly, setting apart one day for the service of God, another day for rendering justice to his people, another day for preaching to them, and another day for his own affairs. DA‘WA (csy*0)- A claim in a law¬ suit. A claim or demand. (See Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 63.) DA‘ WAH (iSjcj). Lit. “A call, in¬ vocation (i.e. of God’s help).” A term used to express a system of incantation which is held to be lawful by orthodox Muhammadans ; whilst si hr, u magic,” and kahanah, “ fortune- telling,” are said to be unlawful, the Pro¬ phet having forbidden both. From the Muslim books it appears that Muhammad is believed to have sanctioned the use of spells and incantations, so long as the words used were only those of the names of God, or of the good angels, and of the good genii ; although the more strict amongst them (the Wahhabis, for example,) would say that only an invocation of Gou Himself was lawful — teaching which appears to be more in accordance with that of Muhammad, who is related to have said, “ There is nothing wrong in using spells so long as you do not associate anything with God.” ( Mishkdt , xxi. c. i.) It is therefore clearly lawful to use charms and amulets on w[hich the name of God only is inscribed, and to invoke the help of God by any ceremony, provided no orte is associated with Him. The science of da^'ah has, however, been very much elaborated, and in many respects its teachers seem to have departed from the original teaching of their Prophet on the sub¬ ject. In India, the most popular work on dafwak is the Jawdhiru 7- Khamsah, by Shaikh Abfl ’1-Muwavyid of Gujerat, a.h. 956, in which he says the science is used for the following purposes. (1) To establish friendship or enmity between two persons. (2) To cause the cure, or the sickness and death, of a per¬ son. (3) To secure the accomplishment of one’s wishes, both temporal and spiritual (4) To obtain defeat or victory in battle. da 3 £ 4 j 5 6 Ihe Special Attributes or Names of God. Allah. Bdqt. e-w Jami ‘. Dayyan. Iiadi. The Number of the Attribute. GG 113 114 G5 20 The Meaning of the Attribute. God. Eternal. Assembler. Reckoner. Guide. The Class of the Attribute. Terrible. Amiable. Terrible & Amiable combined. Terrible. Amiable. n no Quality, Vice, or Virtue of the Letter. Friendship. Love. Love. Enmity. Enmity. * he Elements. (Arbrfah lAnuzir.) Fire. Air. Water. Earth. Fire. The Perfume of the Letter. Black Aloes Sugar. Cinnamon. Red Sandal. White Sandal. The Signs of the Zodiac. ( I3uruj .) Jlainal. Ram. Jauzii’ Twins. Sarafan. Crab. §aur. Bull. 1 Jamal. Ram. 1 The Planets. ( Kawdkib.) Znhal. , Mushtari. Saturn. ( Jupiter. Mirrikh. Mars. Shams. Sun. Zuhra h. Venus. i The Genii. (Jaw.) Qayupfish. Daniish. Nulush. Twayush. Hush. The Guardian Angels. (Munakkil.) Israfil. Jibra'il. Kalka’Il. Darda'il. Durba’il. 10 74 DA‘\VAH Letters of the Alphabet arranged according to the Abjad [abjad], with their respective number. 6 j 7 3 8 c 9 L 10 o The Special Attributes or Names of God. \^ali Zald. Haqq. wto dp Tahir. Yds in. The Number of the Attribute. 40 37 108 215 130 The Meaning of the Attribute. Friend. Purifier. Truth. Holy. Chief. The Class of the Attribute. Amiable. Combined. Combined. Terrible. Amiable. The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of the Letter. Love. Love. Hatred. Desire. Attraction. The Elements. (Arinrah ‘ Andfir.) Air. Water. Earth. Fire. Air. The Perfume of the Letter. Camphor. Honey. Saffron. Musk. Rose Leaves. The Signs of the Zodiac. ( Buruj .) Juuzu. T wins. Sarafan. Crab. Jady. Goat. Jfamal. Ram. Mizan. Scales. The Planets. (Kaxcakib ) ‘ Utdrid. Mercury. Qamar. Moon. Zuhul. Saturn. Mushtari. Jupiter. Mimkh. Mars. The Genii. (Jinn.) Puyush. Kapfish. ‘Ayush. Badyush. Shahbush. The Guardian Angel. (Muwakkil.) Raftma’il. Sharkall. Tankafil. Islima’il. SarakikuH. of the Alphabet arranged aeoo’*' g to the Abjad [abjad"], with ^eir respective number. 20 cil 30 J 4° f 30 ^ CO ^ The Special Attributes or Names of Gcd. Juifi. Latif. Malik. Sami'. The Number of the Attribute. Ill 120 00 256 180 The Meaning of the Attribute. Sufficient Benignant. King. Ligh.. Hearer. The Class of the Attribute. Amiable. Amiable. Terrible. Amiable. Combined. The Qua iiv, Vice, or Virtue of the L Per. Love. Separation. Love. Hatred. Desire. The E!c; us. (•A. wok ‘ Andsir .) Water. Earth. Fire. Air. Water. The Perfume of the Letter. White rose leaves. Apples. Quince. Hyacinth. Different kinds of Scents. The Sign of the Zodiac. (Buruj.) 'Aqrab. Scorpion. S Nun Ta 50 400 DACV?AH 78 da‘wah 19 J Ra 200 20 s-» Bh 2 21 s-» Ba o mm 22 Kaf 20 23 J Lam 30 24 J Lam 30 25 v> Shin 300 26 CS Ya 10 27 0 Hamzah 1 28 J Wau 6 29 5 Wau 6 30 \ Alif 1 31 ) Ra 200 32 Sa 500 33 Ha 5 34 ) Wau 6 35 ) Ra 200 36 \ Alif 1 37 ) Za 7 38 <3 Qaf 100 39 Ha 5 40 Wau 6 41 j Ra 200 42 \ Alif 1 43 C Ha 8 44 r MIm 40 45 a Ha 5 2613 in reciting such an invocation, units are reckoned as hundreds, tens as thousands, hun¬ dreds as tens of thousands, and thousands as hundreds of thousands. In the above formula — Its ni$ab, or fixed estate, is the number of letters ( [t.e . 45) put into thousands = . Its zakfit , or alms, is the half of the nisab added to itself, 4,500 and 2,250= . Its ‘wsAr, or tithes, is half of the above half added to the zakat , 6,750 and 1,125= . • Its quji, or lock, is half of 1,125 = Its daur, or circle, is obtained by adding to its quji the sum of the ‘t«Ar and then doubling the total : — 563 7,875 - 8,438 8,438 4,500 6,750 7,875 563 Its b