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No. 49

the Journal of the

LONDON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EUROPEAN CONSERVATION YEAR

1970

Published : August 1970
Price : One pound • Post free

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THE LONDON MML HISTORY SOCIETY

WHATEVER your interest in natural history — even if you are still a beginner —
the Society will welcome you as a member. You are offered a wonderful oppor¬
tunity of extending your knowledge and increasing your enjoyment. The
Society’s Area lies within a 20-mile radius of St. Paul’s and here most of its
activities take place. Although so much of the area is covered with bricks and
mortar it is a most exciting region with an astonishing variety of fauna and flora.
The Society consists of Sections whose meetings are open to all members without
formality. If you are interested in: archaeology, botany, ecology, ento¬
mology, GEOLOGY, MAMMAL STUDY, ORNITHOLOGY, RAMBLING, Or if yOU are a
Young Naturalist there is a section ready to help you.

We offer you . . .

INDOOR MEETINGS

Nearly every week throughout the vear with Films, Lectures and Discussions
on all aspects of natural history.

FIELD MEETINGS

Led by experts, at week-ends and on summer evenings to visit “ good ” natural
history places, often outside our Area. These excursions are very popular with
beginners wishing to improve their knowledge.

PUBLICATIONS

The London Naturalist , published annually, a permanent record of the Society’s
activities, including records of plants and animal life in the London Area.

The London Bird Report, published annually, containing papers, facts and figures
of special interest to bird watchers in London. Compiled bv the Ornithological
Section which also issues a bi-monthly Bulletin (6s. Od. a year 10s. Od. non-members
post free).

LIBRARY

A large selection of books and periodicals, many with special reference to London,
now housed at Ealing Central Library and available for the use of members.

READING CIRCLES

Many important natural history journals enabling members who subscribe to
these circles to read any of the journals at a fraction of the cost of an individual
subscription.

UNIVERSITY LECTURES

With the co-operation of the University of London, Department of Extra-Mural
Studies, courses of evening lectures during the autumn and spring. They are
designed to meet the needs of members for more knowledge of any particular
aspect of natural history.

MEMBERSHIP AND SUBSCRIPTIONS

MEMBERS .....
SENIOR MEMBERS ....
JUNIOR MEMBERS ....
FAMILY MEMBERS ....
ENTRANCE FEE ....

All members except family members receive
and The London Bird Report.

FIFTY SHILLINGS
TWENTYFIVE SHILLINGS
FIFTEEN SHILLINGS
HALF THE APPROPRIATE RATE
FIVE SHILLINGS

one free copy of The London Naturalist

All details may be obtained from : —

THE MEMBERSHIP SECRETARY, MR. A. J. BARRETT,
40 FRINTON ROAD, KIRBY CROSS,
FRINTON-ON-SEA, ESSEX

THE

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NATURALIST

the Journal of the

LONDON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

No. 49

World List Abbreviation: Lond. Nat.

Published August 1970 by the
London Natural History Society
and printed by F. J. Milner & Sons Ltd. Brentford, Middlesex

LEONARD PARMENTER

(1903 - 1969)

LONDON NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Founded 1858

President:

R. E. BUTLER, B.Sc., F.G.S.

Honorary Vice-Presidents:

C. P. CASTELL, B.Sc., J. B. FOSTER, B.A., R. C. HOMES, M.B.O.U.,
ERIC HOSKING, F.R.P.S., M.B.O.U., Rt. Hon. LORD HURCOMB, G.C.B.,
K.B.E., Miss C.E. LONGFIELD, F.R.G.S., F.R.E.S., M.B.O.U., E. M.
NICHOLSON, C.B., M.B.O.U., R. M. PAYNE, F.R.E.S., J. H. G. PETERKEN,
F.L.S., Mrs. L. M. P. SMALL, H. SPOONER.

Honorary Librarian:

R. A. SCOALES, M.A., A.L.A.

Officers for 1970

Vice-Presiden ts :

E. B. BANGERTER, B. L. J. BYERLEY, F.R.E.S., C. P. CASTELL, B.Sc.,
S. CRAMP, B.A., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., R. W. HALE, V. F. HANCOCK,

M.B.O.U., J. E. LOUSLEY.

Secretary:

P. C. HOLLAND

Treasurer:

A. J. BARRETT

Joint Membership Secretaries:

A. J. and Mrs. B. F. BARRETT, 40 Frinton Road, Kirby Cross, Frinton-on-Sea,

Essex.

Editor, London Naturalist: PAUL A. MOXEY, B.Sc., Dip. Cons., F.L.S.
Editor , London Bird Report: P. J. GRANT
Librarian: Miss H. BRITTON
Programme Secretary: D. G. HALL
Administration:

Film Hire: P. J. Sellar, B.Sc., M.B.O.U.; Mapping Schemes: H. A. Sandford,

B. Sc., A.D.E., M.Phil.; Minuting ( General Meetings): Miss M. E. Kennedy;

Bookings: Miss M. E. Kennedy.

Members of Council:

Miss E. P. Brown, Miss D. C. Hersey, Dip.Geog., F.R.G.S., M.B.O.U., A. M.
Hutson, Miss M. E. Kennedy, R. Kettle, B.A., D. Griffin, M.A., M.B.O.U.,
R. F. Moorman, F.G.S. , C. F. Sayers, P. J. Sellar, B.Sc., M.B.O.U., Mrs. A. G.
Side, F.L.S., Mrs. H. M. Smith, Miss J. M. Stoddart, R. C. Vernon, M.B.E.,

Mrs. A. Warren.

Information about the Society may be obtained from the Joint Membership

Secretaries.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Leonard Parmenter (1903-1969) Frontispiece

Officers for 1969-70 3

Editorial... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 5

Looking into the Past — R. E. Butler .

Report of the Society for 1969 . 13

The Hindson Bequest — The President . 16

Botanical Records for 1969 — J. Edward Lousley . 17

London’s Lichens — J. R. Laundon . 20

The Behaviour of Common Carp and Crucian Carp as indicated by

Angling Records — David Marlborough . 69

Observations on the return of fishes to a polluted tributary of the

River Thames, 1964-69 — B. S. Meadows . 76

A Review of the Macrolepidoptera of the London Area for 1968

and 1969 — C. G. M. de Worms . 82

Ladybird Survey — Second Report — D. G. Hall . 90

Survey of Bookham Common: Twenty-Eighth Year — Progress

Report for 1969 93

Short Notes :

Mammal Recording . 104

Badger Corpses . 104

The Society’s Collections . 104

Flowers and Figures — E. M. Hillman . 105

Some Recent Temporary Exposures of London Clay in the London

Area— Adrian J. Rundle and John Cooper . 113

Further Additions to the London Clay Biota of Oxshott, Surrey —

Adrian J. Rundle and John Cooper . 125

Conservation Report, 1969 — Daphne C. Hersey . 127

Obituary: Leonard Parmenter, 1903-1969 . 130

A tribute to L. Parmenter— Cynthia Longfield . 131

Books ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 32

The Library . 135

Statement of Affairs at 31st October 1969 . 136

General Account and Publications Account . 138

EDITORIAL

5

Editorial

ALTHOUGH this issue of the London Naturalist records the activities
of our Society in 1969, it appears in European Conservation Year,
1970. It is for this reason that the E.C.Y. symbol appears on the cover,
and that some passing comment is appropriate here.

By the time this journal is published, the Strasbourg Conference will
have receded into the past, European Conservation Year itself will have
run more than half its course, and the problems of environment will have
have been explained and debated in broadcasts, books, newspapers and
magazines, and at a multitude of meetings throughout Britain and abroad.
For London, indeed, the process began on December 16, 1969 at the
Dinner given by the Corporation of London to launch European Con¬
servation Year in this country; since then, in the words of His Royal
Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, speaking in the Guildhall that evening:
“we are in changing times, as we are tirelessly reminded, and one of the
charges is that today the words conservation and environment are bandied
about like tennis balls at Wimbledon”. Some, indeed, have expressed the
fear that we shall tire of the words before we understand their meaning.

There are many aspects of conservation, and their sum is the concern
for the overall environment; it w7ould be invidious to select any one as
being more important than the others. Nonetheless, one particular
aspect, nature conservation, is, and has long been, the particular concern
of our Society.

In the Greater London area wildlife exists by virtue of two facts: its
ability to adapt to a changing environment on the one hand, and the
extent to which remnants of semi-natural habitats survive in our parks,
commons and open spaces on the other. The London Natural History
Society is composed of people, living or working in London, who are
interested in Natural History; since its formation in 1858 it has seen the
metropolis expand from under three million persons to over seven million
in 1969. With this growth in numbers has come the expansion of the
built-up area and the consequent disappearance of the rural environs
which harboured an abundance of plant and animal life and were well
known to the earlier members of the Society. Today housing estates,
in some cases already facing demolition, stand on the site of fields which,
in the early years of this century, provided hay for London’s horses, and
it requires a vivid imagination indeed to envisage the scene described by
a poet of 1902:

“Hendon and further out afield.

Low water-meadows are his ken;

And lonely pools by Harrow Weald,

And solitudes unloved of men”.

In these circumstances, it is hardly surprising that the Society showed
an early interest in conservation. The history of this particular aspect of

6

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

our activities has been admirably documented by C. P. Castell in his
papers, Nature Conservation in the London Area (Castell, 1947) and
Post-War Progress in Nature Conservation in the London Area (Castell,
1954); the significance of his own personal role in this, as in so many
other facets of the Society’s work, can never be sufficiently stressed. In
more recent years, the reports of the London Nature Conservation Com¬
mittee reflect the Society’s continuing concern and vigilance, whilst the
extensive programme of special lectures and meetings for 1970 itself
records this Committee’s enthusiasm and effort. A full report on these
activities will, of course, have to wait until 1971.

The formation of the various County Trusts for Nature Conservation
bordering on our Society’s area has in many ways eased the burden.
Whilst the London Natural History Society includes the promotion of
nature conservation amongst its aims, for the Trusts it is their prime
function and one of their most important contributions has been the
establishment and management of nature reserves in our Society’s area.
Like the L.N.H.S., however, they are concerned also with records, since
without a foundation of knowledge there can be no secure building of
management practice.

Thus, although the Trusts and our own Society overlap in interest and
function, they are essentially complementary, and anything which weakens
one weakens the other. As today conservation becomes increasingly
complex, drawing on a wide range of skills and experience, voluntary
bodies and local authorities are being drawn together in the planning
process, so that organisations such as our own are more and more being
asked for advice and comment. Wildlife is an integral part of our en¬
vironment, and the participation we are now offered in its planning is a
responsibility the early members of the Society would have envied.

Again, this year, pressure of papers have exceeded space available,
with the result that, regretably, Part VII of Eric Groves’ Hemiptera-
Heteroptera of the London Area will appear in the London Naturalist
No. 50. This year, however, we publish three papers held over from the
past : Flowers and Figures , by Miss E. M. Hillman, London's Lichens , by
J. Laundon, and Some Recent Temporary Exposures of London Clay in the
London Area, by Adrian J. Rundle and John Cooper.

REFERENCES

CASTELL, C. P., 1947. Nature Conservation in the London Area. Lond. Nat., 26, 17-41.

— — - — , 1954. Post-War Progress in Nature Conservation in the London Area. Lond. Nat.,
33, 6-20.

LOOKING INTO THE PAST

7

Looking into the Past

By R. E. Butler

{Presidential address delivered on October 9th 1969 )

THE past has a potent appeal to most minds. Because of this, I am
inviting you as naturalists, to take a look at a few aspects of it.

We may consider the past in two parts, the longer part covers that
enormous period of time which takes one back to the beginning, and
brings one to within a million years or so of the Present Day. One may
regard this as the field of the geologist, but even he is unable to trace earth
history right back to the very beginning. The second and shorter part may
be considered as dating from the arrival of man, himself a product of the
story of evolution, but seemingly bent upon changing so much, and des¬
troying so much of his natural environment. In this part the geologist is
still deeply concerned, but the archaeologist also takes a hand and plays a
dominant role.

How long life has existed on this planet of ours no one really knows.
If we consider the earth to be 5,000 million years old then perhaps life has
existed for half this time in some form or another. There are some people
who think that life may be as old as the earth itself — possibly was there in
the original primeval matter. The recent discovery of formaldehyde in the
galaxy could point to this. One thing is certain, and that is that man has
not been around for very long — possibly for only If million years. It was
once suggested that if we represent the age of the earth by means of a
clock, then man would have arrived at one minute before midnight.

In looking into the past, recollections, images and interests are special
to every individual. We, all of us, tend to wear blinkers and restrict the
width of our interests, and so miss much which is concerned with the very
field we are studying. To the farmers and gardeners, the success or failure
of the current results of their labours in controlling Nature, depends on the
past of a few months ago. To the leaders of field meetings in demon¬
strating Living Nature, “yesterday” could be as much the past as is last
Spring or last year. To the archaeologist and the geologist the past is
much more static, and has to be organised on to an historical type of
basis.

We certainly have better ideas today, compared with when Bishop
Ussher made his notorious statement that the Earth was created in the
year 4004 B.C. It was even suggested that fossils had been deliberately
put into the rocks at the time of the Creation in order to confuse man.

Fossil collecting goes back more than 3,000 years. Famous Greeks
such as Hippocrates and Aristotle were interested in them. In round
barrows on Dunstable Down there have been found remains of people
dating back to the Beaker cultures of the Bronze Age. They had been
buried with specimens of fossil sea urchins. For many years fossils were
usually associated with the Great Flood of biblical times. Theories post¬
ulated that fossils had important scientific significance were found difficult
to accept.

Among the many pursuits that the remarkable man Leonardo da Vinci
followed, was canal building. He came upon fossils when engaged upon

8

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

the construction of a canal across Northern Italy. He was convinced of
marine submergence as the explanation for the beds containing fossils. It
was, however, left to another canal builder in England, William Smith,
living three hundred years after Leonardo da Vinci, to really pioneer the
work of examining the natural history of the past. Smith made a great
study of fossils and used them to interpret geology. Smith is often referred
to as the “Father of English Geology”. His collections are preserved in
the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. The year 1969 is of
some significance as it is the bicentenary of his birth.

However, it is not my intention to give details of the work and records
of fossil collectors and naturalists of the past. Written accounts put down
as events were taking place can only take us back a certain distance in time.
I wonder how many naturalists looking into the past would turn to the
translations of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. These contain entries relat¬
ing to natural events. One entry dated 1087 could perhaps be one of the
first records of nature conservation is this country. It reads : —

“He planted a great preserve for deer, and he laid down laws therewith,
that whosever should slay hart or hind should be blinded. He forbade
the harts and also the boars to be killed. As greatly did he love the tall
deer as if he were their father. He also ordained concerning the hares,
that they should go free. His great men bewailed it, and the poor men
murmured thereat; but he was so obdurate, that he recked not of the
hatred of them all; but they must wholly follow the king’s will, if they
should live, or have land, or property, or even his peace.” The reference
is of course to King William II and to the New Forest. The word “deer”
may be “deor” meaning beasts in general (this is an observation made by
the translators).

I must not fail to mention the Roman writer and historian, the younger
Pliny, who has left us an eye witness account of the eruption of Vesuvius
on August 24th 79 A.D. This eruption was the one which buried Pompeii
and Herculaneum. Pliny’s account is so detailed, that any volcanic erup¬
tion today that approximates in character to it, i.e. a stupendous blast of
uprushing gas which rises to several miles and then spreads out into an
expanding globular cloud, is called a Plinian type of eruption.

Pliny only takes us back to Roman times. Of such times we have
ample evidence, and can build up from it a more or less complete picture of
what life was like during those times. All over our country are magnifi¬
cent remains of Roman cities, villas and farms; some provide us with evi¬
dence of the natural history as well. The Roman palace at Fishbourne,
near Chichester, had a fine garden, and evidence of the plants which grew
in that garden is to be seen from decorative drawings on wall plaster that
have been recovered from the site. Evidence has also been uncovered
there, which provides a clear picture as to how the nearby coastline has
altered. Even ballast used by the Roman ships has been discovered, this
consisted partly of granite brought from the Channel Islands. The arch¬
aeologist and geomorphologist must be relied upon a lot to take us back
into prehistoric times before the Romans. Frequently Archaeology has
been rejected as a subject having much to do with natural history. Earlier
there may have been some truth in this up to a point, but modern arch¬
aeological techniques certainly have very close links with natural history.

The biggest archaeological monument in Europe, Silbury Hill, has rec¬
ently been re-excavated. A full report is awaited. I wonder how many

LOOKING INTO THE PAST

9

people have said “Well what did they expect to find"’ — I have heard this
said on more than one occasion. Professor Atkinson, who directed the
excavations, stated during one of the last programmes presented by BBC
Television on the dig, that the archaeologist may by past experience have a
“hunch” as to what is likely to be there, but he does not expect to find any
particular thing. He deals with whatsoever he finds. Silbury produced
no skeleton but a wealth of remains of insects, molluscs and plants. Radio
carbon dating enables us to know how many thousands of years ago these
creatures lived. At Silbury it has been possible to examine the former land
surface covered up by man four thousand years ago. Pollen analysis in¬
dicates mainly grassland weeds; the presence of the remains of beetles and
winged ants suggests the months of July and August when the old land
surface was first covered, but the presence of winged queen ants narrows
this down to the month of August.

From evidence obtained from numerous sites we have considerable in¬
formation on the plants used by Palaeolithic man. One of our earliest
pieces of evidence of vegetable foods is to be found in the carbonised hazel
nuts discovered in the Farnham Pit dwellings. The Glastonbury lake
dwellers were known to have made great use of wild plants — sloe and black¬
berry for food — moss for plugging cracks in their timber buildings — ferns
and bracken for bedding — hair moss and osiers for basketry — certain fungi
were used for tinder, whilst caraway and poppy seeds were used as delic¬
acies. We also know that certain succulent grubs and snails were appreci¬
ated. We find much evidence of the natural history of the past in peat
deposits. After the withdrawal of the ice sheets at the end of the Ice Age,
much of the soil had been removed from the higher areas, whilst on the
lower lying areas glacial debris had been left as moraine and boulder clay,
awaiting recolonisation by plants. Numerous lakes left by the glaciers
filled up and became swamps. Southern England was probably at a slight¬
ly higher level then, than today, and became covered with swampy forest
and peat bogs. Much of the floor of the North Sea is submerged forest.
The peat and submerged forest contain much evidence of the past, part¬
icularly in the pollen grains which became fossilised. The pollen grains
can be identified, whilst radio carbon present enables us to date them. The
ice probably retreated for the last time about 8,300 B.C., and we passed
from a glacial into a pre-boreal climate (cold and dry but becoming warmer)
with birch as the dominant tree. By 6,000 B.C. having passed through a
warm dry period, the country was enjoying an Atlantic type of climate
(warm and wet) with alder, oak, hazel and elm trees growing successfully.
By 3,000 B.C. the Mesolithic period had passed into the Neolithic, and the
climate became sub-boreal (cooler and drier) with alder, oak, lime and ash.
Climatic conditions continued to change through the Bronze Age and the
Iron Age. By 500 A.D. — well into what are usually regarded as historical
times the Atlantic type of climate had returned.

The present day levels of the peat are used as arguments in proving that
the British Isles are tilting — unfortunately this is not in favour of London.
Nine sites in Britain, and two in Holland have been investigated, and it is
shown that there has been a subsidence of East Anglia and Kent by 6 metres
during the last 6,500 years. The temple of Mithras, discovered in 1953-54
on the Walbrook site, was well below present high water mark. Roman
pottery discovered in Southwark was at levels 1*5 and 2 metres below
present high water. The fact that the Thames is tidal today as far as

10

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Teddington, whereas in Roman times it was less affected by tides, adds
weight to the subsidence ideas.

Going back into Glacial times, we are really getting back to the early
days of man— a million years into the past saw the first ice sheets arrive.
Much of Britain was icebound and south of the ice margins the vegetation
was certainly of tundra type. However, the ice made several advances and
retreats, and there were periods of better times — Interglacial periods. The
story of one such interglacial period is preserved in the famous Hoxne lake
deposits near Diss. At this locality there was a lake, and in its deposits are
preserved the remains of animals and plants — of special interest are the
fossil pollen grains. Going from the botton layers to the top of these
deposits one can, with the aid of the pollen, trace a gradual warming up of
the climate from the very cold arctic type to conditions which were certainly
much warmer than our present day conditions. Then the reverse occurred
and the climate cooled off again so in the uppermost layers the plants are
back to those typical of an arctic type such as arctic birch. Much evidence
concerning interglacial conditions was unearthed in London during 1957.
During excavations for the foundations of the Uganda Government build¬
ings in Trafalgar Square, a wealth of material was found. Dr. A. J.
Sutcliffe and others of the Natural History Museum investigated this mat¬
erial. Remains of animals included hippopotamus, the now extinct
straight tusked elephant; rhinoceras, wild ox, red deer, fallow deer and lion.
Over 1,300 specimens of land and river molluscs representing some 60
species were recovered. Among them was the pearl bearing mussel and a
tiny snail neither of which live today in Britain but inhabit areas of South¬
ern Europe. These molluscs not only provide information on the climate
of the past, but tell us quite a lot about the River Thames in those days.
Numerous insect remains were discovered, along with many plants. Some
of the plants such as the South European maple are certainly not native to
this country today.

I have made several references to radio carbon used for dating purposes.
This, and other similar radioactive substances have become very import¬
ant. Nitrogen is an element whose atom normally has a mass of 14.
Natural radiations convert some of the nitrogen atoms in the air into
carbon atoms of the same mass. Carbon atoms normally have a mass of
12. The ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 appears to be fairly constant,
and both types of carbon atoms are absorbed by plants during photosyn¬
thesis, so in the living plants this constant ratio between the carbon atoms
is unchanged. With the death of the plant, absorption of carbon ceases, and
the carbon 14 is not replaced to preserve the ratio. Cl 4 slowly decays.
Now, we know that radioactive changes go on at speeds which are com¬
pletely unaffected by external conditions and that half of the original
carbon 14 will have decayed in 5,568 years (the half life value). Three
quarters will have gone after 11,140 years. Hence it is quite easy to date
a piece of carbonised wood from its carbon 14 content. This radio carbon
method is surprisingly accurate— the classic test for this was on a piece of
wood from Qumran (A Dead Sea scroll locality) — this wood was known
to date from about 68 A.D.— the radio carbon dating gave an age of 1,940
years. Carbon dating suggests that Stonehenge was constructed in 1860-
1560 B.C., the first phase of Avebury about 1700 B.C., and the extant
barrow of Wayland Smithy was made in 2820 B.C.

The geologist however, cannot go back very far with radio carbon, but
he has other similar methods. Many minerals in the rocks contain the

LOOKING INTO THE PAST

11

metal Potassium, the atom of which normally has a mass of 39 but there
are some atoms of mass 40. These slowly decay into the inert gaseous
element Argon which becomes trapped within the mineral crystals. The
half life of Potassium 40 is 1,300 million years and so by examining the
amount of Argon present one can deduce how much of the potassium has
decayed. The element Uranium likewise decays very slowly and in a mil¬
lion years 1 gm of uranium will produce 1 /7000 gm of lead — hence uranium/
lead ratios in minerals may also be used for dating purposes. Such tests
have been carried out on the ancient rocks of Scotland, and ages ranging
from 740 million to 885 million years have been determined. No doubt
the rocks from the Moon brought back by the Apollo missions have also
been put to these tests.

I will now return to fossils, which are one of our greatest assets for help¬
ing us to build up a picture of the past. A very large number of people
become interested in geology simply because of fossils. Many youngsters
collect fossils, and if they continue to do so into adult life, there is a good
chance of their becoming fully fledged geologists. However there is much
more to fossils than building up a massive collection. The scientific im¬
portance of fossils may be summarised as follows : —

(i) They are the remains of prehistoric life, and often it is possible to
build up a reconstruction of what the creature or plant actually looked like
when living.

(ii) They provide important information on evolution.

(iii) They provide information about the rocks in which they are found,
i.e. whether the sediment which formed the rock was laid down in shallow
water or in deep water, in rivers, swamps or even in deserts.

(iv) They provide information on the geography and ecology of the past.
We know from fossil evidence that Alaska and Siberia were once joined —
also Australia and Malaya — the separation of the latter may have been
earlier than the former.

(v) The distribution of shallow water molluscs help us to trace ancient
shorelines.

(vi) Fossils provide information about past climates. Both the Silurian
and Jurassic periods in British geology are rich in corals, and so in those
times warm shallow seas must have covered parts of the British Isles —
corals generally need warm water. Fossil plants found in Greenland and
Antarctica prove that these areas once enjoyed very warm climates.

(vii) Certain fossils of limited time distribution are useful in correlating
strata from one district to another.

(viii) Some fossils are of economic value. Coal is mainly fossil material.

Above all the geologist uses fossils to fix geological time (the fourth
dimension of the earth’s past). The first rocks which contain abundant
fossils are those of the Cambrian period reckoned to begin about 600 mil¬
lion years ago. This period starts off the great Palaeozoie era which lasted
375 million years. Major biological changes are taken by the geologist for
fixing the beginnings and endings to the great geological eras. Large scale
extinctions of many groups of animals and the arrivals of many new types
provide the deciding factors. The trilobites and many groups of the bra-
chiopods vanished to mark the end of the Palaeozoic, whilst the arrival of
the true ammonites and newer types of brachiopods marked the start of the
second great era, the Mesozoic. This era saw the ascendency of the rep¬
tiles culminating in the well known group called the dinosaurs. The
Mesozoic lasted for 155 million years, and then again occurred massive

12

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

extinctions. The ammonites which had undergone rapid and often pecu¬
liar evolutionary changes just vanished. The dinosaurs which had roamed
the Earch also vanished. The extinctions of great animal groups provides
us with difficult biological problems which have never really been solved.
As regards the dinosaurs, it has been suggested that large scale vegetation
changes at the end of the Mesozoic may have killed off the herbiferous
dinosaurs, and this in turn killed off the carnivorous ones that lived on them.
This suggestion does not find much favour because in the Upper Cretac¬
eous it would appear that some dinosaurs were flourishing quite well on the
newer types of vegetation. There is also the question of the heat control
of their bodies — they had no protective covering to retain heat like birds
and mammals. At the end of the Mesozoic, the climate became cooler and
the dinosaurs could not cope. However, these creatures died out even in
the warmer parts of the world. Some people have suggested that their
great size indicated possibly an overactive pituitary gland but I must men¬
tion that not all dinosaurs were enormous and the small ones also became
extinct. With the general decline in the reptiles, mammals and birds
became important, and into the next great era the Caenozoic or Tertiary,
the animals and plants are assuming the characters of present day forms.
Man’s arrival some If million years ago is the last great biological time
fixing event. Animal extinctions however continue, as for example with
the Irish elk. The geologist does not rely entirely on fossils. One must
appreciate that some rocks are without fossils and so other features must
be looked for. Ripple marking can be fossilised; this occurs in shallow
water, and can occur in deserts, but if one looks closer at the rock, if it is
a sandstone, one can tell from the sand grains themselves whether they were
deposited in a desert or under water. Desert sands show heavy attrition
effects — they are often called millet seed sands. Rain prints and suncracks
can be fossilised into the rocks — these would indicate possible mudflat con¬
ditions at the time of deposition. Elementary chemistry can be brought
into the methods of delving into the past. During the Triassic peroid which
opened the Mesozoic era, Britain was suffering rigorous conditions of a hot
desert. Typical desert sands from that period were laid down as the Bunter
sandstones of the Midlands — ironically these sandstones provide us with
the best water bearing strata that we have in this country today. At times
these deserts had areas of water. As these lakes dried up the waters dep¬
osited numerous minerals, among them calcium sulphate. Now calcium
sulphate will crystallise as the hydrated salt forming gypsum under normal
conditions, but if the water is fairly warm then the anhydrous salt will crys¬
tallise as anhydrite. In some places where these lakes existed we do in fact
find deposits of anhydrite indicating a very warm temperature for the
water.

From Neolithic times and possibly earlier, ancient man must have un¬
wittingly helped in the spread of plants. The principal roads and tracks
were chosen so that they followed the higher well drained ground i.e. the
limestone and chalk outcrops such as the Jurassic scarp which runs from
Yorkshire to the Cotswolds; the Harroway along the Chalk from Kent to
Stonehenge and beyond; and the Icknield Way/Ridgeway route from the
Wash to the Berkshire Downs, Marlborough Downs and beyond. In the
clay vales away from these ridges, were dense oakwoods inhabited by such
animals as the wolf, the bear and the lynx. These routes were lines of
trade and must have greatly assisted in the spread of wild plants. Many
of our common wild plants, it is agreed, have had a southern European

LOOKING INTO THE PAST

13

origin and were probably introduced accidentally by the Celts and the
Romans. Rightly or wrongly the Romans are credited with the accidental
introduction of the pimpernell and the poppy, together with others such as
fool’s parsley and the small stinging nettle. It is certain that they deliber¬
ately introduced the gardener’s curse, — the ground elder, which was prized
as a medicinal herb. They also introduced hemlock and henbane, the lat¬
ter valued for its narcotic properties.

Sir Edward Salisbury has pointed out that Roman roads with sloping
sides to their embankments would have been eminently suitable for colon¬
isation by plants, as have our own railway embankments.

To study the present in any field of natural history may seem a full
enough task, but it remains incomplete without some knowledge of evolu¬
tion. Here, museum collections of fossil plants, birds, mollusca and other
animals are invaluable: it is in Geology that we find the beginning and
interdependance of all aspects of natural history, and the results of changes
of climate or conditions are convincingly demonstrated.

We examine moon rock; and map the geology of the ocean floors.
From an aeroplane we are at times able to see much more of the geological
structure, and certainly a lot of archaeological evidence. As seen from the
ground alone, the study of man through the ages, shows what a destructive
animal he is of the natural history surrounding him.

Report of the Society for 1969

COMPARED with the figures quoted in the Report for 1968, the
present membership in all classes, 1,202, seems to show an alarming
drop of 527. Some loss of membership was expected arising from the
necessity to review the subscription structure. This year has, in addition,
seen the completion of a critical and prolonged examination of the
membership records by the Membership Secretary. Such a review is
essential from time to time but is an exacting task not lightly to be under¬
taken. As a result, however, it may be fairly claimed that the figure
quoted, 1,202 made up as to:—

Ordinary members

974

Affiliated members

23

Family members

82

Junior members

85

Honorary members

18

Life members

20

1,202

represents the membership of the Society as at October 31, 1969.

The death is announced with regret of the following members during
the year: Mrs. P. Bates, W. J. Kaye (the Society’s longest serving member),
Miss K. Marks, Miss L. Mathieson (the Society’s second-longest serving
member), H. Greenfield, H. G. Denvil and L. Parmenter, a former
President.

14

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

So far as the Society’s administration is concerned, the year has been
an exacting one, illness causing a serious gap for some months, but further
expert assistance has now been embodied into the Secretariat and some
of the accumulated work has been disposed of.

Undoubtedly the most important task was the disposition of so much
of the Hindson Bequest as has as yet been paid to the Society, a sum at
October 31 amounting to £14,000. From the outset this bequest has been
regarded as a capital asset and none of the monies available has been
diverted to revenue accounts. The settlement of the bequest has not yet
been completed, but in the meantime arrangements have been made with
the Westminster Bank Trustee Department for the investment of £10,000.

At Bookham Common, the soil analysis survey which suffered a
serious set-back when illness overtook Mr. C. P. Castell has now been
resumed under the Directorship of Mr. H. A. Sandford. A successful
application has been made to the Carnegie Trustees for a grant towards
the cost of this scheme. The Director is in urgent need of further assist¬
ance and will welcome workers able to help him and his team in this
investigation.

As reported last year, 1970 is to be European Conservation Year and
your Council arranged to sponsor a special programme of activities in
this connection. Mrs. L. M. P. Small has organised this with co-operation
from the sectional officers and a very full and varied programme awaits us.

During the year, the officers of the Archaeology Section ran into
difficulties, finding themselves unable to fill gaps following resignations
among their number, but a happy solution was found in the amalgamation
of the section with the Geologists. The new joint section was formally
inaugurated on November 19, 1969 and we can look forward to a healthy
programme embodying activities of interest to adherents of both dis¬
ciplines.

The Archaeology Section listing some interesting meetings, report
with regret that none of them was well-attended.

Work has continued during the year on the pottery found at Borough
High Street. The work on post-medieval pottery having been completed
expert assistance is being obtained for the Roman material.

Thursday evenings, the Chairman leads work on the masses of pottery
found this summer in Montague Close, Southwark and any members
interested in pottery are invited to join.

In view of poor attendances and the difficulty of finding officers, this
Section asked the Geology Section to consider an amalgamation, and the
respective Committees having formally proposed such action, the Council
on September 18, 1969 approved the amalgamation of the two Sections.

The Botanists are pleased with an increase to 37 in their average
attendance at the three sectional meetings : an improvement on the figures
for last year.

A useful fact emerges from their report that informal meetings, always
well attended, seem attractive to new members.

Of the wide range of field meetings, the Whitsun Weekend held at
Lyndhurst in the New Forest attended by 24 members was “happy and
profitable”. The Section record their thanks to Mrs. Yule for her expert
guidance and making freely available her knowledge of the Hampshire
flora.

The Ecologists have averaged an attendance of 34 at their three indoor

REPORT OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1 969

15

meetings. Joint outdoor meetings have been held with the Herts. /Middle¬
sex Naturalists’ Trust and with the Entomological Section. They already
have in mind their contribution to European Conservation Year 1970 as a
Nature Trail at Bookham Common.

Their report stresses that all records are important, and they ask all
members of the Society to assist by sending records (mammals, fish,
molluscs, reptiles and amphibians) to the appropriate addresses.

The Entomologists held nine indoor meetings, but with the exception
of a joint meeting with the British Arachnological Society which attracted
an audience of over 60, of whom about half were Society members, in the
main attendances were poor. It is hoped to arrange further joint meetings.
A joint visit to Farthing Down with the Ramblers was well received but
the same success did not attend a joint meeting with the Ecologists.

Whilst the response to the Ladybird survey has not been as great as
had been hoped, accent has now been placed on two of the commonest
species (the 2- and the 7-spot ladybirds) and Society members are asked
to assist in this survey.

The Epping Forest Field Section strike a new note in their annual
report by complaining of the lack of mud which is likely to cost them their
reputation for rough and heavy walking. Neither of the fungus meetings
was very successful because the specimens were undersized and dried up,
but experience reveals that the August meeting is the more popular and
successful of the two.

Showing an increase over previous years, the average attendance at
field meetings was 13.

The Geology Section reports a varied and interesting year. The
talks included one on agates with a distribution of samples. Successful
field trips were led by members of the section: the highlight of the year
probably being the Easter field meeting on the Isle of Wight during which
there were one or two notable finds including the vertebra of an iguanodon.
Two members of the section made the remarkable find of a fossil turtle
skull at Abbey Wood, possibly the oldest complete turtle skull in Europe.

The Ornithology Section held 9 formal indoor meetings with an
average attendance of 90 to 100 members including, at one of the best
attended meetings, a stimulating progress report on the Atlas Project.
A joint meeting with the B.T.O. was arranged, followed by a buffet
supper, the address being given by the President of the Cambridge Bird
Club.

The most successful meeting of the year attended by 300 people, was
that held jointly with the R.S.P.B. at Caxton Hall on November 4, at
which Bobby Tulloch gave an excellent talk, superbly illustrated about
the Birds of the Shetland Islands. Eight informal meetings were held
monthly through the winter, covering a variety of subjects and which
were consistently well attended by an average of 40 members.

The Section’s Annual Dinner was held in March, Mr. S. Cramp being
the guest of honour who gave a most excellent talk on his expedition
to Libya.

A very successful programme of field meetings was arranged and these
consisted of six weekend outings, 13 day coach trips and 41 whole or half
day meetings. In addition, two weekends were specially arranged for
junior members. Three of the weekends were based on Cley in Norfolk,
one on Southwold, one on Weston-super-Mare and one on Dumfries.

16

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

All were successful from an ornithological point of view, particularly the
weekend on the Solway. So far as whole or half day meetings were
concerned, these were well attended and in many instances numbers of
over 40 were present.

Coach outings, which last year proved very popular and were usually
over-subscribed, seem not to have been so popular this year. Coach
outings to new venues are being arranged this year but rising costs necessi¬
tate watching the position of this activity.

Three enquiries have been organised, covering the Black Redstart,
gull flight-lines and the Atlas Project, which has again been the main
research project for the year.

The possible hazards of bird-strikes to jet aircraft are causing increas¬
ing concern as the air space around the major airports becomes more
congested. The subject has assumed added importance recently in view
of the enquiries into the siting of a new airport. One of the ways in which
it was felt that the Section could provide some useful information towards
the study of this problem was by recording the movement of gulls across
the approach routes to London airport to and from their roosts on the
reservoirs.

A remark applicable to all sections is made in the report of the Research
Committee, “The success of our research projects depends very much on
the help given by members”.

Behind a very modest report, the Ramblers hide what has obviously
been an interesting year. Not surprisingly, since the subjects range from
Thailand to the Bass Straits, the average of attendance at the indoor
meetings remained constant with last year at 30. A wide variety of out¬
door meetings attracted a smaller average and varied from a cruise
through the London Docks, to a visit to the Victoria and Albert Museum
to see tapestries.

The South West Middlesex Section have averaged 19 members at
indoor meetings. Like the Ramblers, this Section has wandered far
outside the Society’s area with lectures dealing with the birds and flowers
of Austria and the botany of the Pyrenees. At outdoor meetings the
numbers attending ranged between 3 and 30.

Despite an increased subscription, the Section retains its membership
of the Hounslow Council for the Arts.

The Hindson Bequest

Members will be aware of the substantial bequest made to the Society
by the late Mr. M. T. Hindson. The final total of the bequest is still
uncertain as further instalments are anticipated.

It is Council’s intention that this money should be used for the lasting
benefit of the Society, and considers that this will be best achieved by
giving first priority to the acquisition of premises to serve as a permanent
centre for the Society and its library.

It may take some time to find premises suitable to our needs. In the
meantime members will be kept informed of the progress made.

R. E. Butler,

President.

BOTANICAL RECORDS FOR 1 969

17

Botanical Records for 1969

Compiled by J. Edward Lousley

FOLLOWING several years with unfavourable summers, 1969 gave the
botanists little cause for complaint. After a wet May, and cold spell
in early June, the summer and autumn were dry and warm. The rainfall
for the year at St. James’s was only 21-01 inches, 90% of the average, but
there was no serious drought and few ponds fell to very low levels. This
was due to the absence of excessive heat and the soaking early in the year.

The number of records contributed was about the same and of con¬
siderable interest, but there was no outstanding new discovery. The most
valuable features were the records from several members of the persistence
of salt-marsh species in north Kent where the habitats by the Thames are
changing rapidly, and the additions to our records for Hertfordshire and
N. Essex.

In this report “Tetrad” references, as used in the Mapping Scheme,
are cited where available, and failing this 10-kilometer squares of the
National Grid. In both cases these appear in brackets following the
place names. The nomenclature is based on the List of British Vascular
Plants (1958) prepared by J. E. Dandy, and for species in that List authors’
names are omitted to save space.

V.-c. 16, West Kent

From a small bit of chalk down above Longfield Station (66/T08),
P. C. Hall reports Filipendula vulgaris , Dropwort. This is less than a
mile from Pinden Farm, and may be the same locality as reported by
Cooper in 1837. We have only one previous record for this species as
found by our members in the part of our Area in Kent. On the same
down there were trees of Sorbus torminalis.

R. M. Burton sent a useful list from the eastern part of the Arsenal
ground at Woolwich, now being developed as Thamesmead, and from
Crossness (51/48). Near the latter he found Rumex palustris and
F. J. Holroyde drew his attention to hundreds of plants of Thorn Apple,
Datura stramonium at Thamesmead. Mr. Burton found one clump of
Carex strigosa near the ornamental pond in Abbey Wood (51/48), and an
uncommon alien grass Urochloa panieoides Beauv. on a refuse tip at
Horn’s Cross (57/T74) whence J. R. Palmer also reports Rumex palustris.
It is pleasing that Mr. Palmer was also able to find a single clump of
Juncus maritimus persisting on Swanscombe Marshes (67/T06) and he also
supplied an interesting list of cultivated shrubs regenerating from seed in
the Downe area. Mrs. L. M. P. Small’s records include Musk, Mimulus
moschatus , at New Eltham (47/T42). We are grateful to H. M. Pratt for
his usual useful list of his observations in the Dartford district.

V.-c. 17, Surrey

A surprising discovery was the finding by Miss Ruth Hartas Jackson
of a colony of a Marsh Orchis, Dactylorhiza praetermissa on Wimbledon
Common. This was seen regularly until about thirty years ago in the
Farm Bog but the new locality is in a different part of the Common
(27/T20). She also found Hordeum jubatum L. on disturbed ground by

18

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, 1970

the Kingston Road near Tibbett’s Corner (27/T22). This beautiful grass
has been found by new roads in several counties in recent years and is
probably introduced with grass seed mixtures. On a wall by a church
in the Upper Richmond Road, Putney (27/T24) she found Geranium
lucidum, a species which tends to favour churchyards but not previously
found so far into London.

Two ferns, Asplenium adiantum-nigrum and Phyllitis scolopendrium,
from Mortlake parish-churchyard (27/T04) were localised by J. L. Gilbert
with admirable precision as on the tomb of Henry Taylor who died in
1786! A grass on a bank near the Thames by Twickenham Bridge (17/T64)
was determined for J. R. Palmer by Dr. A. Melderis as Bromus x pseudo -
thominii P. Smith ( = B . thominii auct.). In April C. W. Ward showed me
a magnificent patch of Common Club Moss, Lycopodium clavatum on
Banstead Heath (25/T24). In October, R. Clarke sent a specimen of
Cyperus eragrostis Lam. from a clay-chalk bank below a garden at
Warlingham (51/T35) — a handsome sedge which has become established
in the Channel Islands.

V.-c. 18, South Essex

It is over forty years since our last record of Long-leaved Sundew,
Drosera intermedia in Epping Forest, and then only one plant was seen.
This year it was refound and B. T. Ward reports 20 plants. The grid
reference is suppressed as this species is not known elsewhere within the
Society’s Area. The Purple Helleborine, Epipactis purpurata, was found
by Mrs. L. M. P. Small in Epping Forest (49/T16) and her identification
confirmed by Dr. D. P. Young. This is the first time this orchid has been
reported to us from the Forest or the vice-county. From the Grays
chalkpit (51/67), R. M. Burton noticed Pyramidal Orchid, Anacamptis
pyramidalis and Dactylorhiza fuchsii, while Miss D. E. Woods found
Orchis mascula in North Stifford Chalkpit (57/T88). From north of
Grays (51/67) R. M. Burton reported the grass, Apera spica-venti. At
the Exhibition Meeting of the Botanical Society of the British Isles a grass
from our Area new to Britain was exhibited by Dr. A. Melderis. This
was the American Bromus pumpellianus Scribn. which J. Whicker collected
from the bank of a reservoir at Walthamstow in 1967. It is very closely
allied to the Hungarian Brome, Bromus inermis from which it is dis¬
tinguished by the lemmas being pubescent near the margins. From
Banbury Reservoir, Walthamstow (39/T50) Mrs. Small sent me a specimen
of Rumex cristatus.

V.-c. 19, North Essex

This has long been a rather neglected part of our Area and Miss M. E.
Kennedy and D. H. Kent, have again added a number of interesting
species. These include Thalictrum flavum from the Stort Canal at Huns-
don Mead (41 /TOO) and east of Burnt Mill Station (41/T40); Ranunculus
trichophyllus also E. of Burnt Mill Station (41/T40); Apium inundatum
abundant on the edge of a pond on Harlow Common (40/T88); and
Anthemis arvensis in arable land near Langridge (30/T84). In fields and
roadsides near the site of Roydon Hall (41/TOO) they found Chenopodium
bonus-henricus and this was presumably the station reported by the
Rev. P. H. Cooke in 1936. Miss Kennedy found Adder’s Tongue,
Ophioglossum vulgatum in abundance in a water meadow at Hunsdon

BOTANICAL RECORDS FOR 1 969

19

Mead (41 /TOO) and Genista tinctoria on the verge of a wood near Harlow
Crematorium (40/T46) and Mr. Kent reports Pentaglottis sempervirens
from the Town Park at Harlow (41/T40).

V.-c. 20, Herts.

Several members have made useful additions to our records for
Hertfordshire. E. B. Bangerter added Avena fatua from near Colesdale
Farm (20/T80), Epilobium roseum from north of Cooper’s Lane Road
(20/T80), Agrostis gigantea from Jack’s Hatch (29/T64) and, with Miss
Kennedy, Campanula trachelium and Mentha spicata from a gravel pit
east of Hoddesdon Park Wood (30/T48). Miss Kennedy reports Mentha x
niliaca from Cuffiey (30/T02), Melissa officinalis from Northaw (20/T82),
Kickxia spuria from near Cassiobury Park (09/T86), and, with P.C.
Holland, Arum italicum from Roxford Copse (31/T00). From Bushey
Mrs. Small sent Oxalis europaea.

V.-c. 21, Middlesex

The joint field meeting of BSBI/LNHS members arranged by E. J.
Clement and T. B. Ryves on October 4 visited refuse tips at Shepperton,
West Drayton, Harefield and New Year’s Green and an account of the
interesting adventives seen will no doubt appear in Watsonia. At the
end of the day Portulaca oleracea was shown as a weed in flower beds
near the Tower of London (38/T20).

On waste ground at the junction of Harrow Road and Edgware Road
(28/T60), Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel. ( = adscendens (H. B. K.) Henrard)
was found by Don Turner and in Newgate Street, in the City (38/T20)
R. M. Burton found Spergula arvensis. In Bishop’s Park, Fulham
(27/T46) Mrs. W. Roberts noted Orobanche minor , and Mrs. J. McLean
collected Epilobium lanceolatum (confirmed by D. H. Kent) from a road¬
side at Ealing (18/T80), the first record from the west part of Middlesex.
Miss M. E. Young had Kickxia elatine in her window-box in Elm Park
Lane, Chelsea (27/T68) and Humulus lupulus grew nearby. Mrs. Small
reports Bunias orientalis from a canal path at Greenford (18/T22). On a
visit of the Quekett Club to Stanmore, A. Le Gros found the leaves of a
bladderwort, which is probably Utricularia neglecta, in ponds near
Wood Lane (19/T62).

We are grateful to the following for their contributions to our records
during the year: —

E. B. Bangerter, R. M. Burton, R. Clarke, E. J. Clement, Mrs. P. O.
Dunkley, Mrs. M. C. Foster, J. L. Gilbert, Mr. and Mrs. P. R. Green¬
wood, P. C. Hall, P. C. Holland, F. J. Holroyde, Miss R. Hartas Jackson,
Miss M. E. Kennedy, D. H. Kent, A. Le Gros, J. E. Lousley, W. Mackin¬
tosh, D. McClintock, Mrs. J. McLean, Dr. A. Melderis, J. R. Palmer,
H. M. Pratt, B. R. RatclifFe, Mrs. W. Roberts, T. B. Ryves, Mrs. L. M. P.
Small, D. E. Turner, B. T. Ward, C. W. Ward, J. Whicker, P. Widgery,
Miss D. E. Woods, Miss M. E. Young, and Dr. D. P. Young.

20

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

London’s Lichens

By J. R. Laundon

Department of Botany, British Museum ( Natural History )

This “Glorious and Antient City . . . should wrap her stately head in
Clowds of Smoake and Sulphur, so full of Stink and Darknesse” —

J. Evelyn, Fumifugium (1661).

CONTENTS

Synopsis 20

Introduction 21

Topography 23

Air Pollution and Lichen Distribution 24

Habitats 30

Conservation 37

Lichen Flora 39

Acknowledgements 67

References 67

SYNOPSIS

The past and present lichen flora within a radius of 16 kilometres from
Charing Cross, the official centre of the monocentric conurbation of
London, is described and analysed. The land-use of this Area comprises
Central London, the Inner Urban Ring, the Suburban Ring, and three
small “wedges” of the Green Belt Ring.

Air pollution by sulphur dioxide is the chief factor affecting the lichen
flora. Early lichen records prove that this pollution was restricted to
the small built-up part of London before the early nineteenth century,
and that it spread over the whole Area around the middle of the nineteenth
century to cause serious damage to the lichen vegetation. Since the
curtailment of London’s expansion in 1938 the continuous decline in the
lichen flora appears to have been halted. At present the ground-level
concentration of sulphur dioxide has remained fairly constant, and as a
result there has been little recent change in the lichen flora. At present
the largest numbers of species are found in north-west London in and
near the Totteridge Green Belt and across south London, excluding
Croydon, whilst the smallest numbers of species are found in the City
and East End. Individual species, several of which have been mapped
on the one kilometre grid, are either ubiquitous, circumurban, disjunct
in an arc from north-west to south-east (via west and south), or south¬
western heathland, in distribution.

165 species have been recorded, of which 71 have been seen since 1950.
The numbers of lichen species increase at advancing distances from the
centre of London. 68 per cent of the present lichen flora occurs on
calcareous substrata, which are favourable because of their high pH, as a
result of which the sulphur is converted to a less toxic form. The good
lichen flora of the remaining areas of heathland proves that terricolous
lichens are able to survive in moderately polluted districts, probably because

LONDON’S LICHENS

21

of the narrow layer of purer air which occurs over urban turf. 65 per cent
of the flora occurs on memorials in churchyards and cemeteries, chiefly
on limestone in the former, where bird excreta promotes nitrophilous
communities, and where some species survive as relics, unable to colonise
new surfaces. Only 11 per cent of the flora survives in woodland, this
lichen habitat being the most adversely affected by air pollution.

Lichen conservation requires a reduction in sulphur dioxide con¬
centration, and the preservation of surviving semi-natural vegetation,
important old limestone churchyard memorials, and old walls.

The detailed records on which these conclusions are based are given
under the heading “Lichen Flora”.

INTRODUCTION

The rapid increase in the population of the world results in an in¬
creasing amount of rural land being utilised for urban development.
When urbanisation occurs, and rural habitats are destroyed, restricted
or altered, many plants and animals are lost, whilst others are able to
adapt themselves to the new environment and therefore manage to
survive. Species associated with man-made habitats become established,
replacing those which have disappeared. For planning and conservation
it is important to know the changes in wild life which are to be expected
when urbanisation takes place. Comparative studies of the flora and
fauna of rural areas with those of existing towns may provide many of
the answers. The monocentric conurbation of London is especially
suitable for studies of wild life in a completely urban environment, because
of its large size and because of the diversity of habitats within the built-up
area.

This study of the lichen flora has been carried out strictly within a
radius of 16 kilometres (9-9 miles) from the official centre of London,
namely the statue of King Charles I at Charing Cross, on the south side
of Trafalgar Square, Westminster. The perimeter of the circle passes
through Enfield, Woodford, Barking, Woolwich, Bromley, Croydon,
Kingston, Isleworth, Harrow on the Hill, and New Barnet (Fig. 1).
This includes 804 sq. km. (310 sq. miles), almost wholly built-over and
all within the administration of Greater London. It is subsequently
referred to as the Area.

This account of the lichen flora includes a digest of my paper in The
Lichenologist (Laundon, 1967), excluding sociology, history of lichen
study, introduced and excluded species ; the editor of The Lichenologist is
thanked for his permission to make extensive use of the earlier article.
This present work gives more detailed consideration to the distribution
of lichens in London in relation to air pollution, incorporates recent
records, and includes more locality data than was possible in the earlier
study. Since The Lichenologist article was published, 45 old churchyards
not previously examined were visited in order to obtain better distri¬
butional coverage. Nine species, Buellia canescens, Catillaria lenticular is,
Lecanora contorta , L. polytropa, Lecidea fnscoatra , Parmelia sulcata ,
Polyblastia dermatodes, Stereocaulon nanodes and Toninia aromatica have
been added to the present lichen flora of the Area, and the percentages
previously published have been adjusted accordingly. These additions
are chiefly of species long present but not previously found, although it is
possible that Buellia canescens , Parmelia sulcata and Stereocaulon nanodes

22

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

vm

GREEN BELT

SUBURBAN RING

INNER URBAN RING

CENTRAL LONDON

Fig. 1. Map of the Area showing the land-use of the London boroughs. The
thick lines mark the boundaries of the boroughs and the River Thames. The
corresponding names to the official numbers of the boroughs are given on p. 40,
whilst the City of London has no number. The borough boundaries are drawn
from a map published by the Evening Standard. The Figure is reproduced

with permission from The Licheno/ogist.

LONDON’S LICHENS

23

may be recent arrivals. The last two are the most interesting of the new
records. The single Parmelia sulcata plant was found by E. T. Rose on
concrete coping in Haringey, which is one of the more polluted boroughs
in the Area; this species is predominantly corticolous in south-east
England, but is unlikely to occur today on bark in the Area. Stereocaulon
nanodes has only recently been found in Britain in rural Somerset and
Teesdale, and therefore its occurrence in an urban area is of special
interest. Only two old records additional to The Lichenologist account
have been discovered.

TOPOGRAPHY

In medieval times the only built-up part of London was the City,
whilst Westminster formed an isolated precinct further up the River
Thames. “Farther afield the open country stretched away on all sides,
dotted with villages, hamlets and manor houses, much as in parts of
England where no great city lay” (Pevsner, 1952, p. 13). Expansion
along the River took place during the 16th and early 17th century so that
Westminster and the City became linked by continuous buildings, which
also extended eastwards to Stepney. By the middle of the 18th century
most of Westminster and parts of Kensington, St. Marylebone, Holborn,
Finsbury, Shoreditch, Bethnal Green, Stepney and Bermondsey had been
built over. In the early 19th century huge new docks were built in the
East End and vast slum housing formed around them. Later the con¬
struction of railways, tramways and piped water supply enabled London
to make much more rapid growth so that most of the old county of
London, excluding parts of the south-east, had become built over by the
early twentieth century, and the Inner Urban Ring (Fig. 1) completed.
Between the World Wars, aided by the development of electric railways,
new suburbs were built to more spacious standards all around London,
thus creating the Suburban Ring (Fig. 1). In 1938, The Green Belt
(London and Home Counties) Act was passed which halted further
extensions of London, and ensured that a rural zone encircled the urban
area. The Act “was passed to preserve from industrial or building
development areas of land in and around the administrative county of
London in the interest of the health and amenity of persons living in
this county” (Burrows, 1950, p. 229). The Town and Country Planning
Act of 1947 ended almost all uncontrolled development in Britain by
making new building subject to planning permission. This Act has been
effectively used to ensure the survival of the Green Belt, and to contain
London to the boundaries reached in 1938 except for some infilling.

This growth of London over a long period has resulted in distinct
types of development (Abercrombie, 1945, p. 22) forming irregular rings
(Fig. 1):

1. Inner Urban Ring. This comprises that part of London which
was built over before the First World War in 1914, and extends from
about 10 kilometres on the west side of the centre of London (Charing
Cross), to about 16 on the east. It is characterised by high density
Victorian terraced housing with a maximum of 75 to 200 persons to the
acre (0-00405 sq. km). The housing is particularly characterised by the
use of sash windows and the presence of projecting rooms at the rear.
The chief industrial areas are Lea Valley — Lower Thames Side, Wandle

24

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Valley and parts of north-west London. In this study Central London,
defined by Abercrombie {op. cit .) as the “Commercial, Administrative
and Cultural Centre of Greater London”, and bounded by Euston,
Aldgate, Waterloo and Green Park (Fig. 1), is separated from the Inner
Urban Ring. The whole of Central London and almost the whole of
the Inner Urban Ring occurs within the Area.

2. Suburban Ring. This includes that part of London which was
built over between 1918 and 1938, and extends from the Inner Urban
Ring to a radius of about 19 kilometres from the centre of London. It
is characterised by low density mainly semi-detached housing, with
sizable gardens at front and rear and wide, tree-lined roads with asphalt
or grass verges. The housing is particularly characterised by the use of
casement windows and the absence of back projections. The maximum
density is 30 to 50 persons to the acre (0-00405 sq. km). The inner part
of this Ring occurs within the Area.

3. Green Belt Ring. This includes that part surrounding London
from which building has been prohibited since 1938. It occupies a zone
extending from the Surburban Ring to a radius of about 32 kilometres
from the centre of London. It is characterised by its predominantly rural
character, which varies from unspolit open countryside to the horrors of
subtopia. The Green Belt is represented in the Area only in north
London, by the “wedges” of countryside of Oakwood, Totteridge and
Walthamstow (Epping Forest) (Fig. 1).

The vast size of the built-up area of London affects the climate.
Reduced winter sunshine, higher temperatures in almost all times and
lowered humidities are amongst the characteristics of London in com¬
parison with the surrounding countryside. Chandler in Coppock &
Prince (1964, p. 47) reports that “throughout the year the differences in
minimum temperatures in central districts and in the country areas
around London average 1-9°C (3-4°F) by night and 0-6°C (1T°F) by day,
but on individual nights the difference may be as much as 9°C (16°F).”
Air pollution, which might also be considered as part of the climate, is
discussed below. The low rainfall of between approximately 53 and 74
centimetres (21 to 29 inches) makes London unfavourable for oceanic
lichens.

Much of the soil overlies London Clay, but some low hills of sand and
gravel occur on which heath communities are developed. Outcrops of
hard acid rock are absent, and the chalk within the Area forms only a
short narrow strip in the extreme south which has been built over. The
whole of the land is below 150 m. in altitude.

AIR POLLUTION AND LICHEN DISTRIBUTION

In 1273 the burning of coal in London was prohibited as being “pre¬
judicial to health” (National Society for Clean Air, 1968, p. 46), but this
law was later relaxed. In 1955 coal burning was again prohibited by
declaring the City of London a smokeless zone, the first to be established
in the Area. Until the 19th century air pollution was largely confined to
the built-up parts of London, where its undesirable characteristics had
been frequently commented upon over the preceding centuries. The
impact of the Industrial Revolution resulted in the spread of pollution

London’s lichens

25

far beyond London and other cities so that the whole of the air over
western Europe is now contaminated (see Junge, 1963, pp. 364-365).
The Clean Air Act of 1956 enabled local authorities to establish Smoke
Control Areas, which may be entirely smokeless (i.e. smokeless zones)
or may make certain exemptions or impose special conditions. Sulphur
dioxide is not controlled by the Act, except for a provision to promote
its discharge through higher chimneys. At present 63% of Greater
London is covered by Smoke Control Areas, and the whole programme
should be completed by 1978. The establishment of Smoke Control
Areas in districts of older houses has been shown to lead to reductions in
smoke concentrations of up to 45%, and reductions in sulphur dioxide
concentrations of up to 20% (Anon., 1968, p. 55).

Over London as a whole, significant changes are taking place in both
the emissions and the concentrations of air pollutants. The rapid and
widespread introduction of Smoke Control Areas, together with the
dramatic decline in domestic coal consumption, has led to both the
emissions and ground-level concentrations of smoke in London being
reduced by about two-thirds between 1956 and 1965 (Anon., 1968, p. 50).
The emission of sulphur dioxide has increased by about 30% between
1952 and 1965, partly due to increased fuel consumption by the electric
power industry. However the ground-level concentration of sulphur
dioxide in London has remained fairly constant, partly because large
quantities are dispersed from tall chimneys into the upper atmosphere.
Smoke pollution at any point depends on the density of the population,
and on the coal consumption per head of population, in a relatively small
area surrounding that point (Williams, 1960), whilst sulphur dioxide
pollution shows no strong correlation with population density, because of
the large emissions from industrial and electricity works. The approxi¬
mate average concentration of sulphur dioxide pollution for the year
ending March 31, 1958 for the Area is shown in Fig. 2. All pollution
shows a similar proportional annual variation, so that the depicted pattern
applies in all recent years. The heaviest pollution of sulphur dioxide
occurs in central London, with high concentrations to the east and west
and lower levels to the north and south. Entirely accurate distribution
maps of average pollution levels over large areas are generally considered
to be impossible to draw. The predominance of westerly winds appears
to have little overall effect on the distribution of sulphur dioxide pollution
in London (see Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1945,
for a discussion of this same phenomenon relating to Leicester).

Air pollution is the chief factor affecting the distribution of lichens in
London. Lichens accumulate a wide range of substances from water
(usually rainwater) passing over their thallus, and it appears that when
an area becomes polluted, thalli also absorb contaminating substances
and so build up lethal concentrations (see D. C. Smith, 1962, p. 562).
Rao & LeBlanc (1966), however, consider that pollution directly harms
the algal symbiont, thus impairing the metabolic processes in the lichen.
Whatever the truth, the polluted air of towns prevents many species of
lichen from becoming established. Smoke, carbon monoxide, sulphur
dioxide and grit and dust are the chief air pollutants, and it is the sulphur
dioxide which appears to be the one which is harmful to lichens. A
correlation between the numbers of lichen species present and the con¬
centration of sulphur dioxide in the air is demonstrated by Skye (1958, p.
159, Fig. 6; 1964, p. 330), and by Gilbert in Goodman et al. (1965, p. 42),

26

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49? 197°

Fig. 2

London's lichens

27

who also shows a lack of correlation between the lichen flora and the
level of smoke pollution. One kilometre grid maps of the London
distribution of lichens show a direct relationship with sulphur dioxide
levels (Fig. 2). Gilbert {op. cit., p. 43) shows that the sulphur content of
the thallus of Parmelia saxatilis increases considerably as the quantity
of sulphur dioxide in the air becomes greater. Grit and dust, which
frequently cover thalli in towns between rain, may not be harmful in
themselves, because roadside dust frequently covers lichens in rural areas
and nitrophilous species appear to thrive on it (see Barkman, 1958, p. 103;
Gilbert, op. cit., p. 40). The absence of many lichens from towns cannot
be solely attributed to the lower relative humidity (see Chandler, 1967),
as Rydzak (1959) has claimed (see Laundon, 1967, p. 283).

The lichen records for the Area dating back to the late 17th century
indicate the effects of air pollution on the lichen flora at different times.
Forster's late 18th century records of such toxiphobous lichens as
Anaptychia ciliaris, Arthonia radio ta, Arthopyrenia spp., Candelaria
concolor, Gr aphis scrip ta, Lecanora pallida, Lecidea limitata, Opegrapha
atra, Phaeographis dendritica, Thelotrema lepadinum and Usnea spp. from
tree boles in and around Walthamstow, 1 1 kilometres from the centre of
London, prove the lichen flora to have been unaffected by air pollution
during this period. Therefore air pollution affected the lichen flora only
in the small built-up area of London before the early 19th century. In
1865-68 and 1881-82 Crombie visited the Walthamstow district and other
parts of Epping Forest and found that the lichen flora has declined
markedly due to the spread of pollution, whilst “about Hoe Street,
Walthamstow . . . where numerous species were collected by Forster . . .
we would at present vainly search for any in a fully-developed condition”
(Crombie, 1885, p. 74). Indeed, Crombie {op. cit., pp. 56-70) recorded
no lichens at all from Walthamstow, although a few species were doubtless
present in St. Mary’s churchyard, since they still survive there today.
By 1881 Crombie {op. cit., p. 71) noted that lichens which “were both
general and plentiful” in Epping Forest in 1865 were “now to be seen
only here and there in very small quantity”. Thus the main decline in
London’s lichen flora appears to have taken place under the major impact
of the Industrial Revolution around the middle of the 19th century, when
polluted air first spread far beyond the built-up area.

During and after the late 19th century the lichen flora continued to
decline as London expanded, but at a much slower rate. As late as
1929-33 specimens of Parmelia were collected in Richmond Park. The

Fig. 2. Distribution of lichens in order of “increasing sensitivity” to air pol¬
lution by sulphur dioxide. A — Candelariella medians , B — Caloplaca heppiana ,
C — Physcia orbicularis , D — Xanthoria parietina (agg.), E — Physcia adscendens,
F — Physconia grisea. The closed circles represent post- 1950 records from
1 km grid squares, whilst the open circles represent pre-1950 records; some old
records are excluded because of lack of precise localities. The lines show the
average concentration of sulphur dioxide in microgrammes per cubic metre, the
inner being equivalent to 10 parts per 100 million, and the outer to 5 parts per
100 million, from April 1957 to March 1958. Where these lines are broken
there is uncertainty as to their precise location. The wavy line across the centre
denotes the River Thames. The sulphur dioxide levels are taken from Chandler
(1965, Fig. 30) with permission, and the London Natural History Society's

Recording Map is used as a base.

28

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

curtailment of London’s expansion in 1938 through the passing of The
Green Belt (London and Home Counties) Act has brought relative
stability to the lichen vegetation of the Area, and later changes have been
minimal. This is because all new urban development results in a local
increase in air pollution, and the containment of London has prevented
any major extension to the area of pollution.

In recent years sulphur dioxide concentrations have remained fairly
constant and there has been little change in the lichen flora. A few minor
improvements indicate that the long period of decline since the early 19th
century may have been finally halted. At Holland Park (Kensington
and Chelsea) Lecanora conizaeoides was scarce on tree boles in both 1953
and 1967 in the northern section of planted woodland, but whereas it was
seen on only two boles in the public walks in 1953, small thalli occurred on
14 in 1967. No change in the status of the lichens in the Central Parks
has been observed, but green algae are increasing on tree boles.

Out of a total of 165 species recorded for the Area, 71 have been
observed since 1950. Nearly all of those which have not been refound
are now extinct. It appears likely that the total number of lichens in the
Area in the early 19th century exceeded 200, for the early botanists
frequently ignored saxicolous lichens because of collecting difficulties.
The decline to the present 71 is primarily due to the increase in air pol¬
lution, but the destruction of suitable habitats accounts for some of the
losses. It appears that any small changes in the lichen flora in the
immediate future will be because of changes in land-usage, and not
because of changes in pollution levels.

The present distribution of lichens in London is an indicator of the
concentration of sulphur dioxide in different localities. In places where
few species occur sulphur dioxide levels are high, but where a number of
lichens are present the sulphur dioxide pollution is less severe. The
present numbers of lichen species recorded in the London boroughs are
shown in Fig. 3; terricolous records are excluded because these are con¬
centrated in the south-west of London in relict heathland, and their
distribution bears little relationship to air pollution. The following
conclusions can be drawn from the map :

1 . There is no one part of the Area which has a very rich lichen flora
in comparison with the remainder.

2. The largest numbers of species are found in north-west London in
and near the region of the Totteridge Green Belt (Fig. 1), and across
south London, excluding Croydon. Croydon has much high density
Inner Urban Ring housing and the Waddon industrial area, and would
therefore be expected to have a poorer flora than the neighbouring pre¬
dominantly Surburban Ring boroughs.

3. The largest numbers of species occur in the least sulphur dioxide
polluted parts of London.

4. Low numbers of species occur throughout the inner districts,
corresponding largely to the Inner Urban Ring (Fig. 1).

5. The smallest numbers of species are found in the City and East
End, where there is high air pollution.

Studies of the present distribution of individual species, maps of some
of which are shown in Fig. 2, indicate that the following types of lichen
distribution occur in London :

1 . Ubiquitous species. This group comprises lichens which are found

London’s lichens

29

16 -25

36 -45

26-35

Fig. 3. Map showing the present numbers of lichen species, excluding terri-
colous records, found within the Area in the London boroughs.

30

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

throughout the whole of London and which can therefore withstand very
high levels of air pollution. Leccmorci dispersa is the only representative
of this group.

2. Circumurban species. This group consists of lichens which have
an orbicular distribution around central and east London from where
they are absent because of the high air pollution. Some species ( e.g .
Caloplacci citrina, C. teicholyta , Candelariella medians (Fig. 2a), Lecanora
conizaeoides ) are completely circumurban, whilst others which are more
sensitive to pollution {e.g. Caloplaca heppiana (Fig. 2b), Physcia caesia,
P. orbicularis (Fig. 2c) and Rinodina subexigud) are circumurban apart from
their absence from the low-lying eastern districts of Newham, Barking and
Woolwich, which are polluted from industrial Lower Thames Side.

3. Disjunct species. This group comprises pollution-sensitive lichens
restricted to an arc from north-west to south-east London, via west and
south. The species {e.g. Lecidea lucida, Physcia adscendens (Fig. 2e),
Physconia grisea (Fig. 2f) and Xanthoria parietina (agg.) (Fig. 2d), chiefly
represented in the Area by X. aureola) are scarce in scattered localities
within the arc.

4. South-western heathland species. This group consists of terricolous
lichens now confined to the acid heaths of south-west London. The
species {e.g. Cladonia cocci f 'era, C. floerkeana, Cornicularia aculeata (for
distribution map see Laundon, 1967, Fig. 2a)) are not restricted by air
pollution like the circumurban and disjunct species, but by the occurrence
of suitable habitats.

HABITATS

The survey of the Area shows that the popular view that London is
devoid of lichens is incorrect. However the present total of 71 species is
not large when compared with the 73 species recorded recently from the
small area of Bookham Commons (Laundon, 1958), situated only 29
kilometres from the centre of London. The Bookham Commons survey
covered only 1-54 sq. km in comparison with the present area of 804 sq.
km. All post- 1950 records are considered as belonging to the present,
and are analysed in relation to the London Rings, distance from the
centre, substrata and habitats. The distribution in relation to air pollution
has been discussed above.

A. London Rings

The London Rings have already been described, and the left-hand
columns of Table 1 show their present lichen flora. One one species
(1 %) of the total London lichen flora, namely Lecanora dispersa , occurs
in Central London. L. dispersa is also the only lichen occurring in Central
New York (Brodo, 1966, p. 435), and it is evident that New York and Lon¬
don have the poorest lichen flora for their central areas of any towns on
record. Their large size and high sulphur dioxide levels over a wide area
probably account for this poverty. 45 species (63% of the flora) occur
within the Inner Urban Ring of London, or on open spaces on its fringe,
which is a high percentage for land built over before 1914. Predictably 64
species (90 %) of the lichens in the Area occur in the Suburban Ring, where
lower levels of pollution predominate. Records from the Green Belt Ring
are not considered here, as such a small portion is included within the Area.
Bacidia sabuletorum, Chaenotheca ferruginea and Parmelia physodes have
been recorded from the Area only within the Green Belt Ring.

31

London’s lichens

Table 1. The present lichens in the London Rings (excluding the Green Belt Ring) (left-hand
columns) and their presence ( + ) in concentric circles drawn from the centre of London at Charing
Cross (right-hand columns). C = Central London; I = Inner Urban Ring; S = Surburban Ring

0-2

2-4

4-6

6-8

8-10

10-12

12-14

14-

S

Acarospora f us cat a

+

S

Bacidia chloroeocca

+

S

B. herb arum

B. sabuletorum

4"

S

B. umbrina

-b

+

S

Buellia canescens

+

S

B. punctata

+

I

S

Caloplaca aurantia

-r

4-

T

I

s

C. citrina

4-

-f

-t-

+

4-

+

I

s

C. decipiens

+

4-

4-

+

I

s

C. heppiana

-f

-r

+

4_

+

I

s

C. holocarpa

+

+

+

s

C. murorum

4-

+

I

s

C. teicholyta

-r

+

+

4-

+

I

s

Candelariella aurella

-r

4~

+

+

4-

+

I

s

C. medians

4-

4“

-f

+

4-

+

I

s

C. vitellina

-f

~r

+

4-

+

I

s

Catillaria lenticularis

+

+

+

Chaeonotheca ferruginea

+

I

s

Cladonia bacillaris

+

4~

+

I

s

C. chlorophaea

+

+

-f

+

4-

+

I

s

C. coccifera

-r

+

+

I

s

C. coniocraea

+

+

-r

T

4-

+

I

C. crispata

-r

I

s

C. fimbriata

T

4*

+

+

4-

+

I

s

C. floerkeana

-r

+

4-

-r

I

s

C. furcata

-f

-f

+

I

s

C. impexa

C. macilenta

+

+

I

s

C. pyxidata

+

4-

s

Collema crispum

+

I

s

Cornicularia aculeata

-f

+

4-

I

s

Lecania erysibe

-r

+

-f

+

+

-f

+

s

Lecanora atra

I

s

L. calcarea

-r

+

4-

+

s

L. campestris

4-

I

s

L. conizaeoides

+

4~

T

-f

+

4-

+

I

s

L. contorta

+

+

I

s

L. dispersa

4~

~r

+

+

+

4-

+

I

s

L. muralis

+

-f

+

+

+

4-

+

I

s

L. polytropa

4

+

I

s

Lecidea coarctata

“T

4

4-

+

s

L. fuscoatra

+

I

s

L. granulosa

-f

4

+

I

s

L. lucida

4

4-

+

I

s

L. stigmatea

+

4

4-

+

s

L. sulphurea

T

I

s

L. uliginosa

-f

4

4-

+

I

s

Lepraria incana

4~

+

+

4

4~

+

s

Ochrolechia androgyna
Parmelia physodes

~T~

+

s

P. sulcata

+

I

s

Physcia adscendens

+

+

I

s

P. caesia

-r

-j-

4

4-

+

s

P. nigricans

4-

I

s

P. orbicalaris

+

4

4~

+

s

Physconia grisea

+

s

Polyblastia albida

+

I

P. dermatodes

4

s

Protoblastenia rupestris

4

+

I

s

Rinodina subexigua

+

-r

4

4-

+

I

s

Sarcogyne regularis

-r

4-

+

I

Stereocaulon nanodes

■f*

I

s

S. pile a turn

-f.

+

4

4-

-j-

s

Thelidium decipiens

+

s

T. incavatum

+

s

Toninia aroma tica

4-

+

I

s

Verrucaria muralis

-f

4-

+

I

s

V. nigrescens

+

_L

4

4-

+

s

V. viridula

4-

+

I

s

Xanthoria parietina (agg.)

+

4

4-

+

45

64 Total

3

9

10

19

39

38

42

59

63

90 %

4

13

14

27

55

54

59

83

32

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

B. Distance from the Centre

Concentric circles at two kilometre distances from the centre of London
(Charing Cross) were drawn on Ordnance Survey Maps and the dis¬
tribution of lichens within each circle was plotted on the right-hand
columns of Table 1. The majority of corticolous and saxicolous species
occur at several localities within a particular circle, whilst terricolous
lichens are concentrated in south-west London where relict heathland
survives. The results from the Table show that there is an increase in
the numbers of species at advancing distances from the centre of London.
This is correlated with the progressive average decline in pollution levels,
housing densities and age of urbanisation at increasing distance from the
centre of London.

C. Substrata

The present lichen flora on the five types of substrata which are present
in the Area is shown in the left-hand columns of Table 2. Calcareous
soil is absent as a lichen substrate. Calcareous stone includes limestone,
concrete, mortar and asbestos-cement sheeting, whilst acid stone includes
brick and sandstone. Calcareous stone is by far the richest substratum
for lichens with 48 species (68 %), because of its high pH value. Gilbert
(1968, p. 15) suggests that a high pH influences the degree of ionisation
and rate of oxidation of sulphite ions, so as to render them less harmful
to lichen vegetation.

All other types of substrata support considerably fewer lichens. 21
species (30%) occur on acid stone whilst acid soil supports 15 (21%).
Although air pollution is harmful to the lichen flora on acid stone, the
list of records suggests that most acid terricolous lichens are unharmed.
At Putney Heath, where there are extensive areas of heather ( Calluna
vulgaris), the lichen flora is essentially similar to that found on unpolluted
heaths, with Cladonia coccifera , C. crispata , C. floerkeana, C. impexa and
Cornicularia aculeata. Gilbert (1968, p. 24) shows that a layer a few
centimetres deep of air containing much reduced sulphur dioxide, but
with little reduction in smoke, occurs over urban turf, and it is probably
this reduction which enables terricolous lichens to occur in urban areas.
However, this phenomenon does not enable terricolous lichens to escape
from the effects of particularly high sulphur dioxide levels, for they were
absent from the bombed sites in Central London (see below). 36 terri¬
colous species were recorded for the Area before 1950, and the decline to
the present number appears to be mainly due to the destruction of habitats.
The absence of Pel tiger a spp. from the Area at the present time is note¬
worthy, for apparently suitable habitats abound, and P. rufescens is
abundant on the air polluted heaths around Scunthorpe, Lincolnshire
(Seaward, 1966).

Nine species (13%) are found on bark and eight species (11 %) occur
on wood. These small numbers fully support the well-known fact that
air pollution has a much greater adverse effect on corticolous and ligni-
colous species than on those on other types of substrata. Prior to 1950
50 species were recorded from bark in the Area, and 36 from wood, so
their decline has been catastrophic.

D. Habitats

The present lichen flora in different habitats is shown in the right-hand

Table 2. The present lichen flora on types of substrata (left-hand columns) and m different
habitats (right-hand columns). Chaenotheca ferruginea and Parmelia physodes occur m habitats
other than those listed.

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LONDON’S LICHENS

33

columns of Table 2. 46 species (65 %) of the total flora are found in

churchyards and cemeteries, chiefly in the former because the memorials
are older. A comparison of the percentages shows that this habitat is
more important for lichens than all others. Only a few Central London
churchyards which retain good collections of headstones (e.g. St. Bartholo¬
mew The Great, Little Britain, City) are devoid of lichens. Churchyards
near the perimeter of London have a lichen flora on their limestone
memorials which is often almost as rich as that on memorials in rural
areas. St. Andrew, Totteridge, situated in the Green Beit, appears to
have the largest number of species, 23 having been recorded. Many of
the churchyard lichens occur in the nitrophilous community called
Cciloplacetum heppianae (see Laundon, 1967, pp. 296-300), which is
characterised by an abundance of orange and yellow lobate Calop/aca and
Candelariella species. The community is well-developed on limestone
memorials (Plates 1 and 2) in old churchyards in the Suburban Ring and
beyond, occurring on the top surfaces of headstones and near the outer
edge of chest-tombs where there is maximum illumination and high
nitrogen concentrations. The memorials are used as bird perches, and
the lichens evidently obtain their nitrogen supply chiefly from the bird
excreta which occurs in quantity amongst the lichen vegetation. The
mite Ameronothrus maculatus (Mich.) occurs in many London churchyards,
where it feeds on lichen thalli; it is possible that it may exterminate some
species from certain churchyards, but this needs further investigation.

The community Caloplacetum heppianae survives in London church¬
yards as a relict from earlier times of rural surroundings and lower levels
of air pollution, being absent from nearby cemeteries of more recent date.
Thus at St. John, Hampstead, it is frequent on the oldest memorials in
the 18th century churchyard, but is absent from the nearby Highgate
Cemetery, which was not opened until 1838; evidently Camden was
already becoming too polluted after 1838 for the community to spread to
new areas. High levels of air pollution in the 19th century also prevented
the Caloplacetum heppianae from establishing itself in the other early
cemeteries of Abney Park (Hackney), opened in 1840, Brompton (Ken¬
sington and Chelsea) opened in 1831-40, and Kensal Green (Westminster)
opened in 1833. Even in existing old churchyards the community is
confined to the 18th and 19th century memorials and unable to colonise
those erected in the present century. Thus at St. Peter and St. Paul,
Mitcham, Caloplaca heppiana (here the principal component of the
Caloplacetum heppianae ) occurs on over 80 % of the non-shaded limestone
memorials erected in the 18th century (Plate 2), compared with none on
those dating from the 20th century (Fig. 4 ); Lecanora disperse i, on the other
hand, shows no decline in colonising ability. Posing levels of air pol¬
lution during the 19th century have made it increasingly difficult for
Caloplaca heppiana to colonise new surfaces in Mitcham, with the result
that all further colonisation ceased before 1900. Patterns of distribution
which appear to indicate species in order of sensitivity to air pollution
can therefore be misleading; Fig. 2 indicates that Caloplaca heppiana is
less sensitive than Physcia orbicularis , but the reverse is the case today as
regards present colonisation.

Old brick walls are the second richest habitat, on which 32 species
(45 %) are recorded. The early 18th century wall at Church Lane, Bedding-
ton, has 23 species (of which one, Lecidea lucida, appears to have become
recently extinct), including the only known plants of Buellia canescens,

34

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

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Fig. 4. The percentage occurrence of Caloplaca heppiana (lower graph) and
Lecanora dispersa (upper graph) on limestone memorials erected from 1750 to
1950 at St. Peter and St. Paul’s churchyard, Mitcham (London Borough of

Merton).

Memorials beneath trees and/or with illegible dates were excluded. Numbers of stones studied:
1751-1775: 10; 1776-1800: 17; 1801-1825: random sample of 25; 1826-1850:7; 1851-1875: random
sample of 20; 1876-1900: random sample of 20; 1901-1925: random sample of 20; 1926-1950: 7.
The inconsistency in the graphs for the period 1826-50 is due to the small number of memorials
erected between these dates. The churchyard is surrounded by old terraced housing and paint
factories. The Figure is reproduced with permission from The Lichenologist.

LONDON’S LICHENS

35

Lecanora atra, Lecidea fuscoatra and L. sulphured, and is the richest for
lichens in the Area. Although sections of this wall are repaired every
few years, it is fortunately never cleaned and it retains its relict lichen
flora. Extensive old brick walls occur around Ham House and these are
characteristic of others in the Area with Candelariella vitellina on their
vertical surfaces and Lecanora muralis on their coping.

Parks provide a habitat for 29 species (41 %). They have a wide variety
of substrata, including heathland at Richmond Park, rock gardens at
Carshalton, Kew (both acidic) and Regent’s Park (calcareous), and old
limestone monuments at Morden Hall and Syon Parks. In central
London, parks are the only large open spaces which are accessible to the
public, and their lichen flora is of potential importance in assessing future
changes due to alterations in air pollution levels. These Central Parks
form a continuous open space over four kilometres in length, and their
present lichen flora is shown in Laundon (1967, Table 3), with the addition
of Cladonia fimbriata from Kensington jGardens. Lecanora conizaeoides
is absent from both St. James’s and Green Parks, and is scarce in both
Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens, whilst the area called The Fountains
in Kensington Gardens has richly developed saxicolous communities on
the limestone edge of four ponds and on an old limestone wall, where the
proximity of water and the abundance of bird excreta have created con¬
ditions more suitable for the growth of some lichens than would otherwise
be possible.

24 species (34%) are recorded from private gardens, which form the
most extensive habitat in London. Asbestos-cement roofs are the most
important substratum for lichens in gardens, but old walls and concrete
bird-paths and pond edges are also occasionally of lichenological
interest.

21 species (30 %) occur at sewage farms, chiefly on concrete. Bedding -
ton Sewage Farm (Plate 3) is the most interesting, and is the only known
locality for Buellia punctata , Caloplaca murorum and Verrucaria viridula
forma tectorum in the Area. This Farm is also the only extensive site
for the Physcietum caesiae (see Laundon, 1967, pp. 300-301), a nitro-
philous community chiefly composed of Lecanora muralis , Physcia caesia
and P. orbicularis, in the Area. This community is now known to occur
occasionally on asbestos-cement roofs, on a tiled roof at Shirley and in
one place on concrete on the eastern side of Banbury Reservoir. At
Beddington the community occurs on the concrete tops of the sides of
open channels, constructed in the early part of this century, which dis¬
tribute the effluent over a wide area to and from the irrigation fields on
the west side of Beddington Lane (Plates 3 and 4). Physcia caesia is
generally dominant, in many places forming a continuous mat extending
for several hundreds of metres. The related community Caloplacetum
heppianae (see above), here generally dominated by Candelariella medians,
also occurs at Beddington, mainly on the east side of Beddington Lane.
It grows on the concrete sides and on some of the tops of the circular
bacteria beds (also called biological filters or sprinklers) and on the
concrete tops of the effluent channels in the area of these beds, where the
sewage is more concentrated. Lichens are absent from the media surfaces
of the bacteria beds and from most of the horizontal tops of their walls,
apparently because of occasional wetting by wind-blown liquid sewage
from the rotating distributors. Edmondson in Jones (1961, pp. 102-104)
gives an excellent account of the purification of sewage at South Norwood

36

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Sewage Farm, and that at Beddington is at present operated in a similar
manner.

Heaths and commons support 17 species (24%). Today all areas
which are of importance for terricolous lichens are situated exclusively
in south-west London. Most outstanding are Putney Heath and Wimble¬
don Common, where extensive relict tracts of Calluna vulgaris survive.
Areas of Calluna are generally rich in lichens and those in London are no
exception. A grass-heath, dominated by Agrostis tenuis , occurs at Barnes
Common and contains Cladonia furcata in abundance.

Eleven species (15%) have been recorded from asbestos-cement roofs.
The importance of this substratum for lichen colonisation in London has
been emphasised by Brightman (1959), who attributed its favourable
nature chiefly to its high water-absorbing power, high base content and
fibrous texture. Although asbestos-cement roofs in London usually
become completely covered in lichens after several years, their flora is
remarkably uniform and poor in numbers of species. Candelariella
aurella, Lecanora dispersa, L. muralis , Lecidea stigmatea and Rinodina
subexigua are often abundant, and where the air is less polluted, as in
parts of the Suburban Ring, the foliose Physcia orbicularis and Xanthoria
aureola become common. The present use of asbestos-cement as a
roofing material for pre-fabricated buildings has enabled Lecanora
muralis , Lecidea stigmatea, Physcia orbicularis, Rinodina subexigua and
Xanthoria aureola to become much more abundant and widespread than
would be the case if this substratum had never come into general use.
Unfortunately, difficulties of access have prevented a thorough examin¬
ation of asbestos-cement roofs in London. This is regrettable, for
detailed recording from this habitat would prove highly valuable in the
mapping of lichens in relation to air pollution, and would enhance the
distribution maps of Physcia orbicularis (Fig. 2c) and Xanthoria parietina
(agg.) (Fig. 2d).

Eleven species (15%) occur on the sides of reservoirs. The Lea
Valley Reservoirs have sides of concrete with an abundance of Candel¬
ariella aurella, C. vitellina, Lecania erysibe forma sorediata, Lecanora
dispersa, L. muralis and Rinodina subexigua on their top horizontal ledges,
the flora having affinities with that of the concrete channels at sewage
farms. Barn Elms Reservoirs have brick sides, which are notable for
the abundance of Stereocaulon pileatum.

Semi-natural woodland supports only eight species (11%), and these
low figures indicate that urban development, by increasing air pollution,
adversely affects woodland more than any other type of habitat. Wood¬
land is normally the richest habitat for lichens where pollution levels are
low, and the absence from the London woods of such common species
as Ever nia prunastri, Lecanora expallens, Parmelia spp. and Pertusaria
spp. is striking. About 25 small areas of semi-natural woodland survive
in the Area, all dominated by Quercus robur or Q. petraea when mature,
and the lichens which occur on bark and wood in 16 of them are shown in
Laundon (1967, Table 4). Lecanora conizaeoides occurs in all of them,
but other species in less than half. The development of the lichen vege¬
tation depends on the growth of the shrub layer which provides shelter
and increased humidity (see below).

After the Second World War bombed sites covered large parts of the
City and East End. These sites, produced by the demolition of buildings
ruined by enemy action, were, rubble and earth-covered basements open

Plate 1. Caloplaca heppiana growing on an 18th century headstone in St.
Lawrence's churchyard, Morden (London Borough of Merton). The oldest
limestone memorials in a churchyard usually have the best developed lichen
veaetation. Many of the memorials in this picture are scheduled for clearance.

1969. J.R.L.

Plate 2. Thalli of Caloplaca heppiana on the horizontal limestone top of a
chest-tomb (179-) in St. Peter and St. Paul's churchyard, Mitcham (London
Borough of Merton). Small apothecia of Lecanora dispersa surround the

Caloplaca. 1969. J.R.L.

Plate 3. White mats of Physcia caesia on the concrete tops of effluent channels
at Beddington Sewage Farm (London Borough of Sutton). These irrigation
fields and channels are shortly to be destroyed, and the M23 motorway is to
cut through the trees in the centre of the picture. 1969. J.R.L.

Plate 4. Thalli of Physcia caesia (top, and bottom left) and Lecanora muralis
(bottom right) on the channels at Beddington Sewage Farm. 1969. J.R.L.

LONDON’S LICHENS

37

to the sky, and surrounded by low brick walls. Since 1954 rebuilding,
chiefly of office blocks, has been carried out on the bombed sites so that
only a few now survive. The sites were quickly colonised by plants, but
only one lichen (1 %), Lecanora dispersa , has been found in this habitat.
By 1954 this species was abundant on almost all calcareous substrata on
the most extensive of the sites at Cripplegate (City), and was also common
on other bombed sites in Central London. L. dispersa is now uncommon
again in these areas because its habitats have been destroyed by building
operations. Extensive searches on several bombed sites failed to reveal
any species of Cladonia , or indeed any terricolous lichen, probably because
of the air pollution, although the lack of established acid humus is possibly
also a contributory factor.

CONSERVATION

The extinction of at least 57% of London’s lichens demonstrates the
way in which urbanisation is harmful to lichens. Most extinctions have
resulted from the increase in the amount of sulphur dioxide pollution in
the air, so that for lichen conservation to be effective the concentration
must be reduced. Though London smoke ground-level concentrations
are declining, sulphur dioxide shows little decrease. Unfortunately,
sulphur dioxide is very difficult to eliminate in comparison with smoke,
grit and dust. The problems involved are discussed by the National
Society for Clean Air (1964), who conclude “that there is no prospect in
the immediate future of entirely eliminating this gas, but that . . . much
can be done to reduce the total emissions and to reduce its concentration
in the air”. One of the important methods of reducing its concentration is
to discharge the sulphur dioxide at a very high level, so that with the
combination of a tall chimney, a high velocity of discharge, and the
buoyancy of a hot plume, the gases will rise to 300-600 metres in favour¬
able conditions and disperse in a manner which contributes little to the
pollution at ground level. The report suggests, along with other con¬
tributory solutions, that in towns district-heating should be adopted,
with pollution discharged through a single high chimney instead of from
numerous low domestic chimneys as at present. The policy of dis¬
charging harmful gases at high levels away from urban development
results in less pollution affecting towns than would otherwise be the case,
but the resulting wider dispersal of sulphur dioxide may prove harmful to
lichens in rural areas with comparatively clean air at present.

Surviving semi-natural vegetation in London should be conserved to
prevent further losses to the lichen flora, and indeed to conserve other
groups of plants and animals. In woods the retention of the shrub layer
is important for this provides shelter and so increases atmospheric humidity,
thus lowering evaporation rates. Lecanora conizaeoides extends high up
the boles in London woods with a well-developed shrub layer, and
occasionally additional lichens are present, but in woods in which the
shrub layer has been removed (as in that bordering Greenwrythe Lane,
Sutton) L. conizaeoides is chiefly restricted to the tree bases and other
lichens are absent.

The terricolous lichen flora on the semi-natural heathland in south¬
west London is of special interest and the preservation of the heaths and
commons therefore essential. Excessive trampling and mowing, and the
widespread use of chemical fertilisers and herbicides, accounts for the
disappearance of much heathland flora. Light trampling, as occurs at

38

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I970

Putney Heath, is favourable, for open communities are maintained in
which the lichens are not crowded out by aggressive plants, and lichen
thalli are dispersed by fragmentation. Too many open spaces have
been converted to lawns and playing fields, with the result that terricolous
lichens are eliminated. Syon House Gardens provide an excellent
example of the way in which interesting lichen areas are destroyed by the
promoters of tidiness and formality. Before 1966 these Gardens were
informal, very picturesque and rather neglected, with Cladonici chlorophaea,
C. coniocraea , C. furcata and C. pyxidata growing on old gravel paths
and amongst moss on the lawns, a mat of Physcia cciesia covering part of
the limestone edge of a small ornamental pond, and Caloplacci aurantia ,
C. heppiana and Candelariella medians growing on the basal plinth of a
limestone column. During 1966 and 1967 Imperial Chemical Industries
and the Duke of Northumberland spent £500,000 in converting the
Gardens into a commercial venture called “The Gardening Centre”.
The Gardens were completely re-laid in the process of which the old
gravel paths were destroyed and replaced with new re-routed gravel paths,
and the lawns were replanted. Terricolous lichens are now absent from
both the paths and the lawns because of the treatment with weed-killing
chemicals, the edge of the pond has been cleaned bare of Physcia and a
climbing Hedera has been planted to cover the basal plinth of the column,
which has also been encircled with young shrubs of Rhododendron , so
that the lichen flora of the plinth will be exterminated by increased shade.
Thus the lichenological interest in the Gardens will soon entirely disappear.
Probably the main threat to London’s open spaces today lies in the con¬
struction of new roads and motorways, including the controversial
Motorway Box. Osterley Park has already been sliced by the South
Wales Motorway (M4), and such interesting areas as Barnes Common,
Beddington Sewage Farm (Plate 3), Mitcham Common and Morden
Hall Park are threatened with comparable works of engineering. When
new roads are constructed, the disturbance to vegetation and amenity
values must be kept to a minimum.

^urv^v^nS artificial habitats rich in lichens also merit conservation.
Old churchyards have far more lichens than any other habitat, including
important relict species, and therefore the more interesting are worthy of
preservation. Despite the attractive appearance of their rows of fine
headstones (Plate 1) there is always the possibility that the memorials
may be cleared and the ground converted into public gardens, so that the
lichen flora is unwittingly destroyed. Increased labour costs, unkept
graves resulting from greater mobility of population, overcrowding and
untidiness are reasons cited for this policy. Fortunately most old
London churchyards in the Suburban Ring are well maintained and of
attractive appearance at present, and are in no immediate danger. An
exception is St. Lawrence, Morden (Plate 1), where the headstones, some
of which date from the 18th century and have an interesting lichen
vegetation, are scheduled for clearance. Negotiations have fortunately
resulted in several memorials being listed for preservation in situ on
historical and scientific grounds. In both Central London and the Inner
urban Ring many old churchyards and cemeteries have been cleared
and converted to lawns or public gardens, chiefly to “tidy them up” and
to increase their amenity value because of the lack of other open spaces.
However, some of the oldest picturesque memorials, especially chest-tombs,
are frequently retained in situ , as at St. Andrew’s Gardens, Wren Street,

LONDON’S LICHENS

39

and St. Pancras Gardens, Pancras Road, both in Camden. Since these
memorials are generally amongst the best lichen habitats, such partial
clearances are not wholly detrimental. Recent limestone memorials in
London are very poor in lichens and therefore the current fashion in
cemeteries for polished marble and polished granite, instead of limestone,
and the practice of cremation since 1885, is of little importance for
restricting lichen habitats.

Sewage farms using irrigation methods are being closed down or
modernised. South Norwood Sewage Farm is in process of closure and
Beddington Sewage Farm (Plate 3) is undergoing modernisation. At
both Farms the concrete channels linking the irrigation fields will be
demolished, and at Beddington the old channels on the site of the new
works were destroyed in 1966. South Norwood Sewage Farm has a
poor lichen flora, but that at Beddington is very rich (Plate 4) and im¬
portant, despite the air pollution from the adjacent Waddon Marsh Power
Station, built in 1950. The lichen flora of old sewage farms should be
studied and recorded in literature before it is too late.

Restoration is frequently detrimental to lichen vegetation. At
Elmstead Woods Station, Bromley, there was a rich growth of mosses
and lichens on an old brick wall in 1956, with many plants of Cladonia
macilenta , Physcia adscendens and Xanthoria parietina sensu lato. By
1964 the wall had been repaired and cleaned of mosses and lichens.
Only a few squamules of Cladonia macilenta , one minute thallus of
Physcia adscendens and a few small thalli of Xanthoria survive, all chiefly
in small depressions. It would appear that the wall surface will eventu¬
ally be recolonised from these remaining plants.

Lichens are slow growing and their relict nature in urban areas makes
some of them susceptible to extinction through over-collecting. It is
therefore perhaps fortunate that collecting is often prevented because of
the risk of damaging surfaces. When a danger of extermination is apparent
or the nature of the substratum prevents the use of. normal collecting
methods, a few apothecia or thallus fragments should be carefully re¬
moved into a small paper capsule, and a permanent microscope slide
made therefrom to serve as a permanent record.

Although urbanisation is renown for destroying lichen vegetation, it is
not harmful to all lichens. Lecanora conizaeoides requires moderate air
pollution to be able to flourish (see Laundon, 1967, p. 292) and is therefore
restricted to the more densely populated parts of Europe. The abundance
of artificial calcareous substrata, in the form of concrete, cement, and
asbestos-cement roofing, has provided extensive habitats for fast-growing
pioneer crustaceous and squamulose lichens, with the result that Candel-
ariella aurella, Lecania erysibe , Lecanora dispersa, L. muralis and Rinodina
subexigua are more common in the Suburban Ring than in the Green Belt
beyond. Planning controls, clean air policy, and the preservation of
areas of vegetation for their amenity, recreational and scientific value
should ensure that lichen communities will be less harmed in future town
development than they have been in the past.

LICHEN FLORA

The species are arranged alphabetically and the nomenclature is based
on James (1965 ; 1966), with later corrections. All old and contemporary

40

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

records are included, with synonymy relating to the former. Species
not seen in recent years in the Area are generally considered to be extinct
and are therefore placed in square brackets ([ ]). Nitrophilous species
are noted, and those not so indicated are either nitrophobous or nitro-
tolerant. Nitrophilous lichens are those that are confined to habitats rich
in nitrogeneous matter, but so far “there is no good experimental evidence
to show whether the distribution of such lichens is dependent upon
nitrogen supplies or upon some factor” (D. C. Smith, 1962, p. 550).

The records are arranged under the Greater London boroughs, which
replaced the older smaller units for administrative purposes on April 1,
1965. The boroughs are denoted by their official numbers, printed in
bold type, which are as follows :

1.

City of Westminster

2.

Camden

3.

Islington

4.

Hackney

5.

Tower Hamlets

6.

Greenwich

7.

Lewisham

8.

Southwark

9.

Lambeth

10.

Wandsworth

11.

Hammersmith

12.

Kensington and Chelsea

13.

Waltham Forest

14.

Redbridge

15.

Havering

16.

Barking

17.

Newham

18.

Bexley

19.

Bromley

20.

Croydon

21.

Sutton

22.

Merton

23.

Kingston upon Thames

24.

Richmond upon Thames

25.

Hounslow

26.

Hillingdon

27.

Ealing

28.

Brent

29.

Harrow

30.

Barnet

31.

Haringey

32.

Enfield

A map of the boroughs appears in Fig. 1. Boroughs 15 and 26 are out¬
side the Area, and 18 almost entirely so, and therefore these three do not
appear in the records. Vaguely localised records are shown with the
respective boroughs separated by an oblique stroke (/). In places where
a single locality is dissected by a borough boundary (e.g. Beddington and
South Norwood Sewage Farms), care has been taken to ensure that the
records are correctly placed. The City of London forms a separate
administrative unit, and its single lichen record is placed under “CITY”.
The vice-county system has not been used since it divides London into
artificial segments which distract from considering the urban area as a
single unit. Grid squares have been used only to map distribution (Fig.
2), because the squares do not fit well into the circular Area.

The records are of three kinds: herbarium, literature and field, and
they are generally quoted in that order of priority. Thus if both an
institutional herbarium specimen and literature reference are available
for a particular record, only the herbarium specimen is cited, this being
the more important since it can be verified. All herbarium material
quoted has been examined and checked. International abbreviations for
herbaria are as follows : BM (British Museum (Natural History), London),
IMI (Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew), K (Herbarium, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew), LD (Lund, Sweden), LINN (Linnean Society,
London), OXF (Department of Botany, Oxford University). All liter¬
ature records have been checked and only the earliest reference is generally
given, since later authors frequently repeated records without mentioning

London’s lichens

41

their source. Field records are denoted by the absence of a herbarium
or literature citation following the observer’s name. Surnames only are
given for the contributors listed below. Where no field observer is given
the records are my own.

The main contributors to the lichen flora are listed below, with dates of
birth and death in parenthesis.

BRIGHTMAN, FRANK HATTON (1921- ). Contributed records

and an ecological study (Brightman, 1959) from south-east London.
BUDDLE, REVEREND ADAM (c. 1660-1715). Undated Hampstead
lichens in the Sloane Herbarium (BM).

CROMBIE, REVEREND JAMES MORRISON (1830-1906). Collected
lichens in Middlesex (now north-west London), chiefly from 1870-1873
(BM). Published an important paper (Crombie, 1 885) on the diminution
of lichens in Epping Forest.

DARBISHIRE, OTTO VERNON (1870-1934). Published a list of
lichens found in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (Darbishire, 1906).
DILLENIUS, JOHN JACOB (1684-1747). Collected lichens from the
Area after 1721. For a discussion of his specimens at Oxford see
Laundon (1967, pp. 304-305).

EDWARDS, PETER JOHN (1947- ). Collected lichens from asbestos

• — cement roofs at Kew and Perivale, 1967-68.

FORSTER, EDWARD (1765-1849). Collected lichens from Waltham¬
stow and neighbourhood probably between 1784 and 1812 (BM). For a
discussion of the dating of his collection and the collecting localities
see Laundon (1967, pp. 305-306). It should be noted that some punctu¬
ation and capital letters have occasionally been added in this paper to
the quotations of the localities on Forster’s herbarium labels because of
deciphering difficulties and in order to render the records comprehensible.
His notebooks, cited as “MSS.”, are in the Botanical Library of the
British Museum (Natural History).

GILBERT, JOHN LESTER (1920- ). Collected lichens from Rich¬

mond Park, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and adjacent areas, from
1956 onwards.

LAUNDON, JACK RODNEY (1934- ). Began work in 1956 on a

study of the lichen flora of London in relation to the urban environment.
The results are published in Laundon (1967) and in this present work.
MILNE, ANTHONY RUSSELL (1923- ). Collected lichens from

Blackheath in 1968.

SUMMERHAYES, VICTOR SAMUEL (1897- ). Organised a

committee to conduct a “Botanical Survey of Richmond Park” in 1929
which resulted in the collecting and recording of lichens from the Park
and Ham Common. For further details see Laundon (1967, p. 306).
WALLACE, NANCY (1907- ). Contributed records chiefly from

Croydon in 1967-68.

The old records from London are particularly interesting for demon¬
strating the richness of the epiphytic lichen flora of the southern end of
Epping Forest prior to the spread of air pollution. As regards individual
species, the old records of Cladonia capitata, C. convoluta and Teloschistes
flavicans are important for their localised distribution. The more inter¬
esting lichens which may still be seen in London include Bcicidici ehlorococca
B. herbarum, Cladonia crispata, Cornicularia aculeata, Physcia nigricans ,
Stereocaulon nanodes , S. pileatum , and Verrucaria viridula forma tectorum.

42

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Introduced lichens (see Laundon, 1967, pp. 301-302) are not considered
in this paper, nor are the species previously excluded by me (Laundon,
1967, p. 325) from the London flora.

Accirospora fuscata (Nyl.) Arnold

Acid stone. Rare.

20: Shirley, Cheston Avenue, abundant on crumbling brick walls, 1967,
Wallace (BM); The Glade, 1967, Wallace.

[Anaptychia ciliaris (L.) Korb.

Bark. Nitrophilous. Probably became extinct in the first half of the
19th century.

9/10 :Tooting Common, herb. J. F. Young (BM). 13: Walthamstow,

Forster (BM).]

[Arthonia radiata (Pers.) Ach. (A. astroidea Ach.; A. swartzianci Ach. ;
Opegrapha swartziana (Ach.) Hepp)

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, “in garden, Hoe Street”, Forster (BM); “between
Hale End & Chapel End”, Forster (BM).]

[Arthopyrenia alba (Schrad.) Zahlbr. {Acrocordia gemmata (Ach.) Massal.;
Arthopyrenia gemmata (Ach.) Massal.; Lichen gemmatus Ach.;
Verrucaria gemmata (Ach.) Ach.)

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, “on the Forest near Hale brinks”, Forster (BM).]
[A. biformis (Borr.) Massal. (. Acrocordia biformis (Borr.) Arnold; Ver-
rucaria biformis Borr.)

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, “on a tree in Mark house field”, Forster (BM).]
[A.punctiformis (Pers.) Massal. (A. analepta Massal. ; Verrucaria epidermidis
var. analepta Hook.)

Smooth bark.

13: Walthamstow, “on a tree in field near Hoe Street adjoining Bury
fields”, Forster (BM).]

Bacidia chlorococca (Stiz.) Lettau

Bark. Rare.

25: Osterley Park, nat. grid TQ 147785, on Salix by lakeside, 1965,
Laundon 2492 (BM).

B. herbarum (Stiz.) Arnold

Calcareous stone. Rare.

22: Mitcham Watermeads, scarce on mortar of top of brick channel
wall by small weir, 1966, Laundon 2602 (BM, slide coll.).

B. sabuletorum (Schreb.) Lett. ( Bilimbia sabuletorum (Schreb.) Arnold)

Mosses on calcareous stone. Rare.

30: Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, scarce on moss on limestone
chest-tomb, 1964, Laundon 2471 (BM).

B. umbrina (Ach.) Bausch

Acid stone. Rare.

20: Shirley, Cheston Avenue, 1967, Wallace. 22: Mitcham Water-
meads, on brick weir, 1966, Laundon 2603 (BM, slide coll.).
[Baeomyces roseus Pers. ( Lichen ericetorum sensu Forster, non L.)

Sandy acid soil with little or no humus development.

13: Leyton, “On the Forest near Layspring”, Forster MSS.]

[B. rufus (Huds.) Rebent.

Sandy acid soil with little or no humus development.

London's lichens

43

31: “Hornsey Wood”, /. E. Smith (BM).]

[. Biatorella moriformis (Ach.) Th. Fr. ( Lecideci taut ilia Nyl.)

Wood.

13: Walthamstow, “pales at Hoe Street”, Forster in Crombie (1885, p.
66). 30: “On old pales near Hendon”, 1870, Crombie (BM); “On oid
pales near Millhill”, 1872, Crombie (BM).]

[Buellia alboatra (Hoffm.) Branth & Rostr. ( Lecidea alboatra var. epipolia
(Ach.) Schaer. ; Rhizocarpon alboatrum var. epipolium (Ach.) Anzi)

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, walls, Forster (BM).]

B. canescens (Dicks.) De Not.

Stone; formerly also on bark. Nitrophilous. Now rare.

13: Walthamstow, on bark, Forster (BM); “on an apple tree in garden,
Hoe Street”, Forster (BM, with Physciopsis adglutinata ); “field in Floe
Street”, Forster (BM, with Buellia punctata)', “in a wood, near Hale
End”, Forster (BM, with Candelariella xantho stigma). 21 : Bedding-
ton, Church Lane, two plants on brick and mortar in crevice of old
brick wall, 1967-68. 30: Hendon, on Ulmus , Crombie (BM).

B. punctata (Hoffm.) Massal. (B. myriocarpa (DC.) De Not.; Lecidea

rnyriocarpa (DC.) Rohl. ; Lichen pinicola Ach.)

Bark and wood. Nitrophilous. Now rare.

1: Kensington Gardens, 1802, Herb. /. E. Smith misc. lich. coll. (LINN).
2: “on the firs, Hampstead Heath”, Crombie (BM). 11: “on an old

elm at Hammersmith — on the banks of the Thames. 1877”,
Larbalestier (BM). 13: Walthamstow, D. Turner (BM); “on pales,

Hoe Street”, Forster (BM); “field in Hoe Street”, Forster (BM);
“elms at Higham Lodge”, Turner in Turner & Dillwyn (1805, p. 289).
21: Beddington Sewage Farm, abundant on south sides of several
Ulmus trees, 1963, Laundon 2395 (BM). 24: “Richmond Park”,

Crombie (BM). 30: Finchley, “on old pales. 1872”, Crombie (BM).
[Calicium abietinum Pers. (C. curtum Turn. & Borr. ex Sm.)

Wood and decaying bark.

13: Walthamstow, “on garden pales in Hoe Street”, Forster (BM),
27: Ealing, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer (1869, p. 406). 30: near
Totteridge, Crombie ( loc . cit.). ]

[C. salicinum Pers. (?C. sphaerocephalum (L.) Ach;C. trachelinum Ach.)

Decayed bark.

13: Leyton, “tree in the Lea Bridge Road”, Forster (BM).]

Caloplaca aurantia (Pers.) Hellb.

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Rare.

10: Tooting, St. Nicholas’s churchyard, several plants on Atkins chest-
tornb, 1968. 21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, two plants on
chest-tomb to Robin Betterton (1724), 1961-64. 25: Syon House
Gardens, two plants on north side of plinth of column, 1964-68.

[C. cerina (Ehrh. ex Hedw.) Th. Fr. ( Lecanora cerina (Ehrh. ex Hedw.)
Ach.)

Bark. Nitrophilous.

“Trunks of trees . . . near London”, Hooker (1833, p. 190).]

C. citrina (Hoffm.)Th.Fr. (C. phlogina (Ach.)Flag.)

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Frequent in the Suburban Ring,
especially on walls, paths, churchyard memorials, etc.

Inner records: 1: Kensington Gardens, frequent on limestone edge of

44

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

ponds at The Fountains, 1964; Regent’s Park, The Holme, on stone
vase, 1967. Also recorded from 2, 6, 7, 9-11, 13, 14, 16, 19-22, 24,
25, 27-32.

Both yellow and orange forms occur in London.

C. decipiens (Arnold) Jatta

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Scarce.

10: Tooting, St. Nicholas’s churchyard, occasional on chest-tombs,
1968. 19: Elmstead Woods Station, three small plants on mortar

of brick wall, 1964; South Norwood Sewage Farm, scarce on con¬
crete, 1963, Laundon 2394 (BM). 20: Shirley, Bennett’s Way and
West Way, 1967-68, Wallace. 21: Beddington, St. Mary’s church¬
yard, occasional, 1961-64; Beddington Sewage Farm, occasional on
concrete channels and bacteria beds, 1962-68; Sutton, Benhilton,
All Saints’ churchyard, scarce, 1965. 24: Kew, St. Anne’s church¬
yard, on chest-tomb, 1969. 31: Tottenham, All Hallows’ church¬
yard, on chest-tomb, 1968.

C. heppiana (Miill.Arg.) Zahlbr. {Placodium murorum auct. pro parte,
non (Ach.)DC.)

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Occasional, especially on church¬
yard memorials. For distribution map see Fig. 2b.

2: Hampstead, St. John’s churchyard, scarce, 1965. 6: Blackheath,
St. Michael’s churchyard, on limestone wall, 1968, Milne (Herb.
Milne). 7: Lee Terrace, St. Margaret’s churchyard, on several
tombs, 1968, Milne; Lewisham High Street, St. Mary’s churchyard,
several plants, 1968. 9: Streatham, St. Leonard’s churchyard, on
two memorials, 1968. 10: Tooting, St. Nicholas’s churchyard,

frequent, 1968. 11: Fulham, All Saint’s churchyard, several plants

on four chest-tombs, 1968. 13: Walthamstow, St. Mary’s church¬
yard, occasional, 1967. 14: Wanstead, St. Mary’s churchyard,

frequent, 1963; Woodford, St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, scarce,
1967. 19: Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, frequent, 1968.

20: South Croydon, St. Peter’s churchyard wall, one plant, 1968,
Wallace. 21 : Beddington, Church Lane, several plants on mortar of
old brick wall, 1958-68; Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent,
1961-64; Carshalton, All Saint’s churchyard, common, 1965; Sutton,
Benhilton, All Saints’ churchyard, scarce, 1965. 22: Merton, St.
Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1961-64; Mitcham, Bishopsford Road,
on wall of Wandle bridge, 1961-64; Mitcham, St. Peter and St. Paul’s
churchyard, frequent, 1961-69; Morden Hall Park, on two plinths,
1961-64; Morden, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, frequent, 1961-69;
Wimbledon, St. Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1962. 24: Barnes,
St. Mary’s churchyard, three plants, 1968; Kew, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Darbishire (1906, p. 103), probably this species; Petersham,
St. Peter’s churchyard, abundant, 1968; Twickenham, St. Mary’s
churchyard, frequent, 1966. 25: Chiswick Old Burial Ground,
occasional, 1964; Syon House Gardens, occasional on plinth of
column, 1958-68. 27: Greenford, Holy Cross churchyard, frequent,
1967; Hanwell, St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent, 1967; Perivale
churchyard, four plants, 1966. 28: Kingsbury, St. Andrew’s church¬

yard, on three chest-tombs, 1967; Willesden, Neasden Lane, St.
Mary’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968. 29: Little Stanmore,
St. Lawrence’s churchyard, frequent, 1965. 30: East Barnet, St.

LONDON’S LICHENS

45

Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, occasional, 1968; Hendon, St. Mary
Magdalene’s churchyard, abundant, 1968; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s
churchyard, abundant, 1957-64. 31: Hornsey, St. Mary’s church¬
yard, several plants on one chest-tomb, 1968; Tottenham, All
Hallows’ churchyard, occasional, 1968. 32: Cockfosters, Christ
Church churchyard, on two headstones, 1968; Edmonton, All Saints’
churchyard, frequent, 1968; Southgate, Christ Church churchyard,
on two memorials, 1968.

C. holocarpa (Hoffm.) Wade (C. pyracea (Ach.) Th. Fr.)

Confined to the tops of old limestone chest-tombs in churchyards.
Nitrophilous. Scarce.

21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1961. 22: Wimbledon,
St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1956-64. 25: Chiswick Old Burial
Ground, frequent on east side, 1964. 29: Little Stanmore, St.
Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce, 1965. 30: Totteridge, St. Andrew’s
churchyard, common on one tomb, 1964.

[C. luteoalba (Turn)Th.Fr. (. Lichen luteoalbus Turn.)

Bark. Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, “ash tree, forest near Hale End”, Forster (BM);
“in garden Hoe Street”, Forster MSS. 20: “growing plentifully on
lime trees at Croydon” Turner (1804, p. 94). 30: near Mill Hill,
Crombie (BM).]

C. murorum (Ach.) Th. Fr.

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Rare.

21: Beddington Sewage Farm, several plants on bacteria beds, 1966,
Laundon 2519 (BM). 22: Beddington Sewage Farm, on concrete
channels in Hundred Acre Lane, 1966.

C. teicholyta (Ach.)Steiner (C. arenaria auct., non (Pers.)Miill.Arg. ;
C. erythrocarpa auct., non (Pers.)Zwackh)

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Occasional, chiefly in churchyards
where it usually occurs on only a single chest-tomb.

9: Streatham, St. Leonard’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968. 10:

Tooting, St. Nicholas’s churchyard, several plants, 1968. 11:

Fulham, All Saint’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968. 13: Wal¬
thamstow, St. Mary’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1967. 16: Barking,

St. Margaret’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1967. 19: Elmstead

Woods Station, two plants on mortar of brick wall, 1964. 21:
Beddington, Church Lane, scarce on mortar of old brick wall, 1958-68.
22: Mitcham, St. Peter and St. Paul’s churchyard, several plants on
chest-tomb, 1964; Morden, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, several
plants, 1961-65. 24: Kew, St. Anne’s churchyard, on chest-tomb,
1968; Petersham, St. Peter’s churchyard, a few plants on a slab, 1968.
27: Greenford, Holy Cross churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1967; Han-
well, St. Mary’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1967. 30: Totteridge,
St. Andrew’s churchyard, occasional, 1957-64. 32: Cockfosters,
Christ Church churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968.

[ Candelaria concolor (Dicks.) Stein

Bark. Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, “on trees”, Forster (BM).]

Candelariel/a aurella (Hoffm. )Zahlbr. ( Caloplaca epixantha auct., non
(Ach.)Flag. ; Candelariella vitellina sensu Brightman (1959), non
(Hoffm.)Mull.Arg.)

46

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Common in the outer suburban
areas.

Inner record: 2: St. Pancras, Wren Street, St. Andrew’s Gardens, one
plant on chest-tomb, 1967. Also recorded from 1, 4-14, 16, 17,
19-25, 27-32.

C. medians (Nyl.)A.L.Sm.

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Local, chiefly on churchyard
memorials, where it is usually the most common squamulose lichen.
For distribution map see Fig. 2a.

1: Kensington Gardens, locally abundant on south-east wall of The
Fountains, 1961-67. 2: Hampstead, St. John’s churchyard, frequent,
1965. 6: Blackheath, St. Michael’s churchyard, 1968, Milne;

Charlton, St. Luke’s churchyard, occasional, 1968. 7: Lee Terrace,
St. Margaret’s churchyard, 1968, Milne; Lewisham High Street,
St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent, 1968. 9: Streatham, St. Leonard’s
churchyard, on one headstone, 1961-68. 10: Tooting, St. Nicholas’s

churchyard, scarce, 1968. 11: Fulham, All Saints’ churchyard,

frequent, 1968. 13: Leyton, St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on

two headstones, 1969; Walthamstow, St. Mary’s churchyard, fre¬
quent, 1967. 14: Wanstead, St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent, 1963;

Woodford, St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, frequent, 1967. 16:

Barking, St. Margaret’s churchyard, abundant on chest-tombs at
west end, 1967. 17: East Ham, High Street South, St. Mary Magda¬
lene’s churchyard, on headstone, 1969. 19: Beckenham, St. George’s

churchyard, frequent, 1968; Bromley, St. Peter and St. Paul’s church¬
yard, on one stone, 1963. 21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard,
abundant, 1961-68; Beddington Sewage Farm, local on channels
and bacteria beds, 1962-69; Carshalton, All Saints’ churchyard,
common, 1965. 22: Merton, St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent,

1961- 64; Mitcham, St. Peter and St. Paul’s churchyard, occasional,

1962- 64; Morden, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, frequent, 1962-69;
Wimbledon, St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent, 1962-64. 24: Kew,
St. Anne’s churchyard, occasional, 1957-68; Petersham, St. Peter’s
churchyard, occasional, 1968; Twickenham, St. Mary’s churchyard,
frequent, 1966. 25: Chiswick Old Burial Ground, occasional, 1964;
Isleworth, All Saints’ churchyard, frequent, 1966; Syon House
Gardens, on urn and plinth of column, 1958-68. 27: Greenford,
Holy Cross churchyard, frequent, 1967; Hanwell, St. Mary’s church¬
yard, occasional, 1967. 28: Kingsbury, St. Andrew’s churchyard,
several plants, 1967; Willesden, Neasden Lane, St. Mary’s church¬
yard, on two memorials, 1968. 29: Little Stanmore, St. Lawrence’ s
churchyard, frequent, 1965. 30: East Barnet, St. Mary the Virgin’s
churchyard, occasional, 1968; Finchley, Hendon Lane, St. Mary’s
churchyard, frequent, 1968; Hendon, St. Mary Magdalene’s church¬
yard, abundant, 1968; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, abund¬
ant, 1957-64. 31: Tottenham, All Hallows’ churchyard, abundant,
1968. 32: Cockfosters, Christ Church churchyard, abundant on
headstones, 1968; Edmonton, All Saints’ churchyard, abundant,
1968; Southgate, Christ Church churchyard, on several headstones,
1968.

C. vitellina (Hoffm.)Mull.Arg.

Calcareous and acid stone. Nitrophilous. Local, chiefly on brick

London’s lichens

47

walls and the concrete sides of reservoirs.

6: Blackheath, Morden Road Mews, on brick wall, 1968, Milne (Herb.
Milne). 7: Lee Terrace, St. Margaret’s churchyard, 1968, Milne.
13: Banbury Reservoir and sides of River Lea, frequent, 1968; High
Maynard Reservoir, locally abundant, 1964; Lockwood Reservoir,
scarce, 1964; Warwick Reservoir (east), occasional, 1968. 19:

Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, on limestone memorial, 1968,
Wallace; Beckenham, St. Paul’s churchyard wall, 1968, Wallace;
Elmstead Woods Station, frequent on brick wall, 1956-64. 20:
Shirley, on brick walls, 1967, Wallace; South Norwood Sewage Farm,
scarce on concrete, 1963. 21 : Beddington, Church Lane, locally abun¬
dant on old brick wall, 1964-68; Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard,
scarce, 1964; Beddington Sewage Farm, occasional on concrete
channels and scarce on Irrigation Bridge, 1963. 22: Morden, St.
Lawrence’s churchyard, occasional on gravestones and scarce on old
brick wall to north, 1962. 24: Barn Elms Reservoir, occasional,

1965; Ham, frequent on old brick walls, 1966. 31: Banbury Reser¬
voir, frequent, 1968. 32: Banbury Reservoir, frequent, 1968; Cock-
fosters, Christ Church churchyard, on acid headstone, 1968.

[C. xanthostigma (Ach.) Lett. (C. vitellina var. xanthostigma (Ach.) Elenk.)
Bark. Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, “in a wood, near Hale End”, Forster (BM).]

[Catillaria denigrata (Fr.) Hedl. (Biatorina synothea Korb.; Lecidea
denigrata (Fr.) Nyl.; L. parassima Nyl. ex Cromb.)

Wood.

7: Blackheath, on timber, Herb. /. E. Smith misc. lich. coll. (LINN).
30: Golders Green, “on old pales”, 1870, Crombie (BM); Hendon,
Finchley Road, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer (1869, p. 406); “near Mill
Hill”, Crombie (BM).]

C. lenticularis (Ach.) Th. Fr.

• Calcareous stone. Rare. New to the Area.

20: South Croydon, St. Peter’s churchyard wall, 1968, Wallace. 24:
Barnes, St. Mary’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968; Kew, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Herbarium Grounds, on asbestos-cement roof of
spirit store, 1967, Edwards (BM, slide coll.). 32: Edmonton, All
Saints’ churchyard, scarce, 1968, Laundon 2649 (BM, slide coll.).

[C. lightfootii (Sm.) Oliv. {Lecidea lightfootii (Sm.) Ach.)

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, Forster in Crombie (1885, p. 65).]

[Chaenotheca aeruginosa (Turn, ex Sm.) A. L. Sm. ( Calicium trichiale
auct. angl., non Ach.)

Wood.

30: Hendon, “old posts”, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer (1869, p. 406).]

[C. chrysocephala (Ach.) Th. Fr. {Calicium chrysocephalum Ach.)

Wood.

13: Walthamstow, on timber, Forster (BM).]

C. ferruginea (Turn, ex Sm.) Migula {Caliciiun melanophaeum Ach.;
Chaenotheca melanophaea (Ach.) Zwackh)

Bark and wood. Rare.

13: Walthamstow, “on pales in garden in Hoe Street”, Forster (BM).
30: “old pales, nr. Mill Hill”, Crombie (BM); Mill Hill, in crevices on
Fraxinus by Totteridge footpath near Folly Farm, 1957.

48

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

[Cladonici arbuscula (Wallr.) Rabenh. subsp. arbuscula (C. rangiferina
auct. pro parte, non (L.) Weber; C. sylvatica auct. ; Lichen rangiferinus
auct. pro parte, non L. ; Lichenoides tubulosum ramosissimum fruticuli
specie candicans, corniculis rufescentibus Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 67)
pro parte)

Heaths. On acid soil generally amongst Calluna.

6: Woolwich Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Synopsis (OXF) and Herb.
Sherard (OXF). 22: “Wimbledon Common, W.M.”, herb. G. Davies
(BM).]

C. bacillans (Ach.) Nyl.

Acid humus soil. Scarce.

22: Mitcham Common, scarce on mor on bank on south side, 1964,
Laundon 2472 (BM). 24: Barnes Common, on humus in grass-heath,
1964, Laundon 2474 (BM); Ham Common, frequent, 1966; Richmond
Park, “on slope just east of Lower [Pen] Pond Outlet”, 1929, Summer-
hay es (K).

[C. caespiticia (Pers.) Florke ( Cenomyce caespiticia (Pers.) Ach.)

Acid humus soil.

31: “Hornsey Wood”, Forster (BM).]

[C. capitata (Michaux) Spreng. {Lichenoides fungiforme terrestre, capitulis
fuscis Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 70); Lichen rufus sensu Withering (1792,
p. 171), non Huds.)

Bare acid soil with little or no humus development.

2: Hampstead Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF).]

[C. cervicornis (Ach.) Flot. {Lichenoides tubulosum pyxidatum exiguum ,
fusco-virens Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 70) pro parte)

Bare acid soil.

6: Woolwich Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Synopsis (OXF).]

C. chlorophaea (Florke ex Sommerf.)Spreng. (C. pyxidata var. chlorophaea
(Florke ex Sommerf.)Florke ; Lichenoides tubulosum pyxidatum ,
marginibus serratis Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 69))

Acid soil and acid and calcareous stone and formerly also on wood.
Occasional.

6: Eltham Common, scarce on earth, 1960; Woolwich Heath, Dillenius
(OXF, Herb. Synopsis). 7: Sydenham, Holmes (1878, p. 211).
8: Dulwich, frequent on disused tunnel wall at Crescent Wood Road,
1968. 10: Putney Heath, frequent amongst Calluna , 1958-66. 12:

Brompton Cemetery, on moss on limestone and on marble chippings,
1956; Kensal Green Cemetery, scarce on moss on acid stone, 1958.
13: “on decayed stumps near Chingford”, Crombie (1885, p. 57).
17: Manor Park Cemetery, scarce on lawns, 1961. 19: Bromley,

Church House Grounds, in rock garden, 1963. 21: Beddington,
Church Lane, scarce on old brick wall, 1968; Carshalton, The Grove,
common in rock garden, 1965. 22: Mitcham Common, occasional

on sandy bank on south side, 1964; Wimbledon Common, “Common
Brick arch at head of Farm Bog, ditch bank below Brickfield Cottage,
wall on West Side, &c.”, Johnson (1912, p. 277), burnt heathland, 1955.
24: East Sheen Common, “south end, on brick wall”, 1931, Turrill
(K); Ham Common, scarce, 1966; Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Darbishire (1906, p. 102), “frequent on rocks in the Rock Garden . . .
pathway near Tennis Courts”, 1958, Gilbert in Shaw (1961, p. 190);
Richmond Park, four records, 1929-34, Ballard & Montford, Richmond

LONDON’S LICHENS

49

Park Committee, Summerhayes , Turrill, near Sheen Common Gate,
1957, Gilbert (Herb. Gilbrt), abundant to south of East Sheen Gate,
1964. 25: Isleworth, Park Road, on brick wall, 1958; Syon House
Gardens, frequent on gravel paths, 1958-64 [absent, 1968]. 28:

Paddington Cemetery, scarce, 1958. 32: Southgate, Christ Church

churchyard wall, 1968.

Several literature records published as Cladonia pyxidata probably belong to C. chlorophaea
and have therefore been included here.

C. coccifera (L.) Willd. (C. cornucopioides (L.) Fr. (1831), non Hoffm.
(1796); Muscus multiformiter pyxidatus apicibus coccineis Petiver
(1695, p. 12))

Heaths. On mor ( = raw humus). Scarce.

10: Putney Heath, Petiver ( loc . cit.), 1961. 22: Wimbledon Common,

frequent, 1956-61. 24: Ham Common, scarce, 1966; Kew, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Dar bishire (1906, p. 102).

C. coniocraea (Florke) Spreng.

Acid soil, acid and calcareous stone, tree-bases and stumps. Occasional.

2: Hampstead, amongst moss on wall, 1963, R.W.M. Corner. 6:
Blackheath, Morden Road Mews, on brick wall, 1968, Milne (Herb.
Milne); Woolwich Common, locally frequent, 1956. 8: Dulwich,

scarce on disused tunnel wall at Crescent Wood Road, 1968. 10:

Putney Heath, scarce amongst Calluna , 1958. 12: Brompton

Cemetery, scarce on moss on limestone, 1956. 17: Manor Park

Cemetery, occasional on lawns, 1961. 21: Beddington, Church

Lane, scarce on old brick wall, 1968; Carshalton, The Grove, common
in rock garden, 1965. 22: Mitcham Common, scarce on sandy soil

amongst Ulex on north side, 1953, on banks on south side, 1964,
Laundon 2473 (BM); Wimbledon Common, scarce, 1956-66; Wimble¬
don Park Rubbish Tip, locally abundant on rubble, 1955, Laundon
1157 (BM). 23: Coombe Hill, on wall, 1956. 24: Barnes Common,

scarce, 1958-64; East Sheen Common, “south end, on brick wall”,
1931, (K Turrill)', Ham, frequent on brick walls, 1966; Kew, Royal
Botanic Gardens, a few plants in Rock Garden, 1968; Richmond
Park, three records, 1929-31, Milne-Redhead, Richmond Park Com¬
mittee (K), on earth to south of East Sheen Gate, 1964. 25: Syon

House Gardens, locally frequent on gravel paths, 1958 [absent, 1968].
27: Perivale Wood, at base of two Quercus, 1957. 31: Coldfall
Wood, on several stumps and on sandy soil, 1957; Queen’s Wood,
scarce at base of Quercus, 1958.

[C. convoluta (Lam.) P. Cout. ( C.foliacea var. endivifolia (Dicks.) Schaer. ;
Lichen foliaceus auct. pro parte, non Huds. ; Lichenoides cartilagin-
osum , tubulis & pyxidulis exiguis Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 70) )

On bare soil with little or no humus development.

7: Blackheath, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF).]

C. crispata var. cetrariiformis (Del. ex Duby) Vain.

On mor amongst Calluna. Rare.

10: Putney Heath, scarce, 1958, Laundon 1860 (BM) (confirmed Ahti).

C . fimbriata (L.)Fr. (C. ochrochlora sensu A.L.Sm. pro parte, non Florke;
Coralloides scyphis gracilibus tubiformibus, Pedicularis folio Dill. (1741,
p. 85); Coralloides scyphis humilibus, intus fuscis Dill. (op. cit. p. 86);
Lichen filiformis Huds.; Lichenoides tubulosum pyxiclatum exiguum,
fusco-virens Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 70) pro parte)

50

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Acid soil, acid and calcareous stone and decaying bark and wood.
Occasional.

6: Blackheath, Morden Road Mews, on brick wall, 1968, Milne (Herb.
Milne); Charlton, Dillenius (1741, p. 87); Woolwich Heath, Dillenius
(OXF, Herb. Synopsis). 7: Blackheath, Dillenius (1741, p. 86).
8: Dulwich, abundant on disused tunnel wall at Crescent Wood
Road, 1968. 12: Brompton Cemetery, scarce, 1960; Kensal Green

Cemetery, scarce, 1958; Kensington Gardens, on wall surrounding
Italian Garden, 1969, A. R. Vickery (BM). 13: “near Hale brinks”,

Forster (BM); “on decayed stumps in Little Hale brinks”, Forster
(BM); near Snaresbrook, Forster (BM); Upper Walthamstow,
Epping Forest, scarce at base of Betula , 1956. 17: Manor Park

Cemetery, frequent on lawns, 1961; Wanstead Flats, occasional in
S.E. corner, 1961. 19: Bromley, Church House Grounds, in rock

garden, 1963 ; Bromley, College Slip, scarce on old brick wall, 1962-66.
21: Beddington, Church Lane, scarce on old brick wall, 1968; Car-
shalton, The Grove, common in rock garden, 1965. 22: Beddington
Sewage Farm, on Hundred Acre Bridge, 1964; Wimbledon Common,
scarce on mor, 1964; Wimbledon Park Rubbish Tip, scarce on
rubble, 1955, Laundon 1156 (BM). 24: Barn Elms Reservoir, rare
amongst moss, 1965; East Sheen Common, 1957, Gilbert; Kew,
Burlington Avenue, on brick wall, 1968, Gilbert (Herb. Gilbert);
Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, many records, 1906-68; Richmond
Park, “on stump near wall”, 1932, Summerhayes & Milne-Redhead
(K). 27 : Greenford, Holy Cross churchyard, at base of chest-tomb,
1967. 28: Paddington Cemetery, scarce, 1958. 30: East Barnet,
St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, scarce, 1968; Gt. Northern London
Cemetery, scarce, 1960; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard,
occasional on limestone headstones, 1964. 32: Edmonton Cemetery,
scarce, 1960; Southgate, Christ Church churchyard wall, 1968.

C. floerkeana (Fr.) Florke {Lichenoides cor cilli forme, apicibus coccineis
Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 68) )

Heaths. On mor. Scarce.

6: Woolwich Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Synopsis (OXF). 10: Putney
Heath, frequent amongst Calluna, 1958-66. 22: Wimbledon Com¬
mon, frequent, 1956-61. 24: Ham Common, scarce, 1966; Richmond
Park, near Sheen Common gate, 1957, Gilbert (Herb. Gilbert).

C. furcata (Huds.) Schrad. {Lichen spinosus Huds.; Lichenoides tubulosum
virescens, ramosius & folio sum, summit atibus arcuatis Dill, in Ray
(1724, p. 67))

Chiefly grass-heaths and moss-covered banks on acid soil where there
is little or no development of mor. Local.

2: Hampstead, Buddie in Herb. Sloane 115: 1 (BM). 6: Woolwich
Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF). 10: Putney Heath, scarce
amongst Calluna, 1958. 13: Walthamstow, “field near Hoe Street

in Forest”, Forster (BM); Upper Walthamstow, Epping Forest, on
bank, 1956. 22: Mitcham Common, on sandy soil amongst Ulex on

north side, 1953; Wimbledon Park Rubbish Tip, scarce on rubble,
1955, Laundon 1155 (BM). 24: Barnes Common, extensive patches
in grass-heath in north part, 1958-64; Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens,
“wood palings on the river-side path towards Richmond”, Darbishire
(1906, p. 102), “pathway near Tennis Courts”, 1958, Gilbert in Shaw

LONDON’S LICHENS

51

(1961, p. 190), moss-covered bank in south part of Gardens, 1959;
Richmond Park, Pond Plantation, near Eastern Boathouse of Upper
Pen Pond, 1931, Richmond Park Committee (K), on ground near
Sheen Common Gate, 1957, Gilbert. 25: Syon House Gardens,
occasional on gravel paths and amongst moss on lawns, 1958-64
[absent, 1968]. 31: Hornsey, Herb. Sherard (OXF).

[C. gracilis (L.) Willd. {Lichen scyphifer ramosus denticulatus filiformis
Hill (1759, p. 589) )

Acid soil.

2: Hampstead, Buddie in Herb. Sloane 115: 1 (BM); Hampstead Heath,
1696 or 1697, Herb. Sloane 285: 32 (BM); Hampstead Heath, Hill
( loc . cit.).]

C. impexa Harm.

Heaths. On acid soil amongst Calhma. Very rare.

2: Hampstead, Buddie in Herb. Sloane 115: 1 (BM); Hampstead, Herb.
Morison sheet 63.39 (OXF). 6: Woolwich Heath, Dillenius in
Herb. Sherard (OXF). 10: Putney Heath, one plant, 1958.

C. macilenta Hoffm. (C. digitata var. macilenta (Hoffm.) Nyl.)

Acid humus soil, acid stone and decaying wood. Scarce.

10: Putney Heath, Johnson (1912, p. 277). 13: Walthamstow, “on

Salisbury Hall Pound, Chapel End”, Forster (BM); “on rails of
palings near Hoe street”, Forster MSS. 19: Elmstead Woods
Station, frequent on moss on brick wall, 1956, scarce, 1964. 22:

Wimbledon Common, “ground under birches . . . Gravelly Hill, &c.
Fairly abundant”, Johnson (1912, p. 277), rare on stump, 1956.

[C. pityrea (Florke) Fr. {Coralloides parum ramosum, tuber culis fuscis
Dill. (1741, p. 97); Lichen anomaeus sensu Sm. pro parte, non
Baeomyces anomaeus Ach.)

Acid soil.

6: Woolwich Heath, 1726, Dillenius, misc. coll. (OXF) and Herb.
Sherard (OXF).]

C. pocillum (Ach.) O. J. Rich. (C. pyxidata var. pocillum (Ach.) Flot.)

Calcareous stone. Rare or extinct.

10: “ on a wall at Putney turning into Wandsworth road”, herb. Rand
(BM).

C. pyxidata (L.) Hoffm. sensu stricto

Acid soil with little or no humus development, and acid and calcareous
stone. Scarce.

2: Hampstead Heath, /. E. Smith (BM). 12: Brompton Cemetery,

scarce on moss on limestone, 1956, Laundon 1687 (BM). 13: “heaths

. . . near Chingford”, Crombie (1885, p. 57). 24: Kew, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Darbishire (1906, p. 102); Richmond Park, near
Sheen Common gate, 1957, Gilbert (Herb. Gilbert). 25: Syon House
Gardens, scarce on gravel paths, 1958-64 [absent, 1968].

[C. rangiformis Hoffm. (C. pun gens (Ach.) Gray; Lichenoides tubulosum
ramosissimum fruticuli specie candicans, corniculis rufescentibus Dill,
in Ray (1724, p. 67) pro parte)

Bare soil with little or no humus development.

2: Hampstead, Buddie in Herb. Sloane 115: 1 (BM). Hampstead,
Herb. Morison sheet 633.10 (OXF). 6/7: Blackheath or Woolwich,
Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF). 13: Walthamstow, “on the
Forest near Hagger Lane”, Forster (BM).

The Dillenius and Forster specimens belong to the chemical strain devoid of fumarprotocetraric
acid; the nature of the Buddie and Morison specimens did not permit this test.)

52

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

[C. subulata (L.) Weber (C. cornutoradiata (Coem.) Sandst.; C. fimbriata
var. radiata (Schreb.) Fr. ; C. fimbriata var. subulata (L.) Vain.)

Acid soil.

2: Hampstead, Buddie in Herb. Sloane 115: 3 (BM).

Lichen subulatus is recorded in Forster MSS. from “near the Great bog between Salters buildings
& the Windmill”, Walthamstow; it may refer to this species.)

[C. tenuis (Florke) Harm. {Lichenoides tubulosum ramosissimum fruticuli
specie candicans, corniculis rufescentibus Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 67)
pro parte)

Heaths. On acid soil amongst Calluna.

6: Woolwich Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Synopsis (OXF) and Herb.
Sherard (OXF).

There are two specimens from Woolwich Heath in Herb. Synopsis, and crystal tests show that
one belongs to the usnic acid chemical strain (var. tenuis ) and the other to the strain devoid
of this acid (var. leucophaea (des Abb.) Ahti).)

[C. uncialis (L.) Weber {Coralloides perforatum minus, molle and tenue
Dill. (1741, p. 99); Lichen uncialis L. ; Lichenoides tubulosum, cauli-
culis mollioribus and crassioribus, majus Hill (1759, p. 591); Lichen¬
oides tubulosum, cauliculis mollioribus and crassioribus, minus Dill, in
Ray (1724, p. 67) )

Heaths. On acid soil generally amongst Calluna.

2: “On Hampstead Heath, 1748”, Hill {loc. cit.). 6: Woolwich Heath,
Dillenius in Herb. Synopsis (OXF) and Herb. Sherard (OXF).]

[C. verticillata (Hoffm.) Schaer. {Coralloides scyphiforme, marginibus
radiatis and foliatis Dill. (1741, p. 85) )

Heaths.

2: Hampstead Heath, Dillenius {loc. cit.).]

Collema crispum (Huds.) Weber (C. cheileum (Ach.) Ach.)

Calcareous stone. Rare.

13: Walthamstow, “on sides of walls”, Forster (BM). 29: Little
Stanmore, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce in crevices on top of
chest-tomb, 1965.

The precise locality of the Walthamstow specimen is given in Forster MSS. as “Brickstile Walk,
Woods treet.”

[C. limosum (Ach.) Ach. (?C. glaucescens Hoffm.; Lichen limosus Ach.)

Calcareous soil.

13: Walthamstow, “in a narrow lane near Hale brinks”, Forster MSS.
20: Croydon, Holmes in Malden (1902, p. 61). 24: Kew, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Darbishire (1906, p. 103).]

[C. tuniforme (Ach.) Ach. {C.furvum (Ach.) Ach.; Lichen granulatus sensu
Forster, non Huds.)

Calcareous stone.

13: “on a tombstone in Walthamstow churchyard”, Forster (BM).
30: “in East Barnet churchyard”, Forster (BM).]

[Coniocybe furfuracea (L.) Ach. {Mucor furfuraceus L.)

Acid soil and decaying bark.

13: “on an oak on the forest near Chingford hatch”, Forster MSS.;
Walthamstow, “on banks”, Forster (BM).]

Cornicularia aculeata (Schreb.) Ach. sensu stricto {Cetraria aculeata
(Schreb.) Fr. ; Lichenoides non tubulosum ramosissimiun fruticuli
specie, rufo-nigrescens Hill (1759, p. 592) )

Heaths. On acid soil generally amongst Calluna. Local.

2: Hampstead Heath, Hill {loc. cit.). 10: Putney Heath, abundant in a
few small areas, 1958-66. 22: Wimbledon Common, 1937, Avery
(Herb. C. P. Castell), locally frequent, 1956-66. 24: Richmond Park,

LONDON’S LICHENS

53

“on slope just west of Lower [Pen] Pond outlet, amongst open
bracken”, 1929, Summerhayes, near Sheen Common gate, 1957,
Gilbert (Herb. Gilbert).

[Cyphelium inquinans (Sm.) Trevis. {Lichen inquinans Sm.; Trcichylia
tympanella (Ach.) Fr.)

Wood.

13: Walthamstow, “old post and rails”, Forster (BM). 30: Totteridge,
“old posts”, Crombie (BM).]

[C. tigillare (Ach.) Ach. {Lichen tigillaris Ach.; Trcichylia tigillaris (Ach.)
Fr.)

Wood.

13: Walthamstow, “paling near Hoe Street (now destroyed)”, Forster
(BM); “On a barn between Wood Street, Walthamstow, and the
Forest”, Forster (BM).]

[Dermatocarpon hepaticum (Ach.) Th. Fr. {Endocarpon hedwigii auct.,
non Lichen hedwigii Ach. nom. illeg. ; Endocarpon hepaticum Ach.;
Lichen trapeziformis auct., non Konig)

Soil.

13: Walthamstow, “on ant hills in Epping Forest near the Great Bog
near Salters buildings”, Forster (BM). 20: “supra terram, in ericetis

sterilibus, prope Croydon”, Dickson (1790, p. 23).]

[Diploschistes scruposus (Schreb.) Norm. {Urceolaria scruposa (Schreb.)
Ach.)

Acid stone and soil.

13: Walthamstow, “Garden, Hoe Street”, on wall and ground, Forster
(BM). 24: “ Grass walls of Kew Gardens, August 1798, R. Brown ”

(BM).]

[Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach.

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, on “trees”, Forster (BM).]

[Graphis scripta (L.) Ach.

Smooth shaded bark.

13: Walthamstow, “near Salter’s Buildings, and between Walthamstow
and Loughton”, Forster in Crombie (1885, p. 68). 14: “between

Woodford Wells and Chingford Hatch”, Forster (BM, with Phaeo-
graphis dendritic a). ]

[Lecania cyrtella (Ach.) Th. Fr. {Biatorina cyrtella (Ach.) Th. Fr. ; Lichen
cyrtellus (Ach.) Sm.)

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, Forster MSS.]

L. erysibe (Ach.) Mudd

Acid and calcareous stone, chiefly the latter. The form erysibe is
local, whereas the form sorediata Laundon is common and usually
sterile; intermediate forms are also occasionally found. For further
information see Laundon (1967, p. 315).

Inner record (forma sorediata): 2: St. Pancras, Heathcote Street, St.
George’s Gardens, abundant on two chest-tombs, 1967. The forma
erysibe is recorded from 6, 11, 12, 17, 20-22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 32.
The forma sorediata is recorded from 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17,
19, 22, 24, 25, 27-32.

Lecanora atra (Huds.) Ach. {Muscus crustaceous Leprosus scutis nigri-
cantibus Petiver (1695, p. 12) )

54

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Brick walls. Nitrophilous. Rare.

21: Beddington, Church Lane, several plants on old brick wall, 1961-68.
London: “some walls about London”, Petiver ( loc . cit.).

By 1968 the Beddington plants were in poor condition and had lost their apothecia which were
present in 1961.

L. calcarea (L.) Sommerf. sensu stricto

Confined to the tops of old limestone chest-tombs and horizontal grave¬
stones in churchyards. Scarce.

10: Tooting, St. Nicholas’s churchyard, several plants, 1968. 13:

Leyton, St. Mary the Virgin, abundant on a limestone slab, 1969.
14: Wanstead, St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1963; Woodford, St.
Mary the Virgin's churchyard, abundant on three tombs, 1967.
19: Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968.
21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, abundant on two tombs,
1961-67. 22: Morden, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce, 1961-65;
Wimbledon, St. Mary’s churchyard, abundant, 1956-64. 24:

Petersham, St. Peter’s churchyard, occasional, 1968. 27: Greenford,

Holy Cross churchyard, a few plants, 1967; Hanwell, St. Mary’s
churchyard, on one memorial, 1967; Perivale churchyard, on one
stone, 1966. 29: Little Stanmore, St. Lawrence’s churchyard,
scarce, 1965. 30: East Barnet, St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on
slab, 1968; Hendon, St. Mary Magdalene’s churchyard, scarce on
slab, 1968; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, several plants, 1964.
L. campestris (Schaer.) Hue ( L . subfusca auct. pro parte, non (L.) Ach. ;
Lichenoides crustaceum & leprosum, scutellis subfuscis Dill, in Ray
(1724, p. 71) )

Calcareous stone. Scarce.

7: Blackheath, Dillenius {loc. cit.). 19: Beckenham, St. Paul’s church¬
yard wall, one plant, 1968, Wallace. 22: Beddington Sewage Farm,
scarce on concrete channels in Hundred Acre Lane, 1962-63 ; Morden,
St. Lawrence's churchyard, scarce, 1961. 27: Greenford, Holy Cross
churchyard, one plant, 1967; Hanwell, St. Mary’s churchyard, two
plants, 1967. 29: Little Stanmore, St. Lawrence’s churchyard,
scarce on top of chest-tomb, 1965. 30: Totteridge, St. Andrew’s
churchyard, four large plants on chest-tombs, 1957-64. North
London: “walls in the suburbs”, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer (1869,
p. 406).

[L. carpinea (L.) Vain.

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, Forster (BM, with Buellia canescens ).]

[L. chlarona (Ach.) Nyl.

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, “on the Forest near Salters buildings”, Forster (BM).]
[L. chlarotera Nyl. ( L . allophana auct. angl. pro parte, non (Ach.) Nyl.;
Lichen crust aceus albicans , scutellis subfuscis: margine cinereo sub-
crenato Hill (1759, p. 581); Lichen subfuscus auct. pro parte)

Bark and wood.

11: Fulham, “On old Pales”, Hill {op. cit. p. 582), “Thames at Bishop’s
Walk”, Cooper (1836, p. 1 1 3). 13 : Walthamstow, Forster (BM). ]

L. conizaeoides Nyl. ex Cromb. {L. conizaea auct. angl., non (Ach.) Nyl. ;
L. pityrea Erichs. ; L. varia auct. pro parte, non (Hoffm.) Ach.)

Bark, wood, acid stone and roofing felt; rarely calcareous stone. Rare
in the inner area but frequent or abundant in the Suburban Ring and
beyond.

London’s lichens

55

Inner records: 1: Buckingham Palace Garden, scarce on trees, 1960,
J. Murray , on sandstone bridge, Buck (1964, p. 37); Hyde Park,
scarce at base of Populus and Ulmus , 1964-67. Also recorded from

2, 4-14, 16, 17, 19-25, 27-32.

L. contorta (Hoffm.) Steiner (. Lichen hojfmannii Ach., nom. illegit.)

Confined to the tops of old limestone chest-tombs in churchyards.
Scarce. New to the Area.

9: Streatham, St. Leonard’s churchyard, on tomb, 1968. 10: Tooting,

St. Nicholas’s churchyard, abundant on tomb, 1968. 14: Woodford,

St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on one tomb, 1 967. 27 : Greenford,

Holy Cross churchyard, on two tombs, 1967. 30: East Barnet, St.
Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on one slab, 1968.

L. dispersa (Pers.) Sommerf. ( L . crenulata sensu Darb. (1906, p. 102), non
(Dicks.) Hook,; L. galactina Ach.; L. hagenii auct. angl., non (Ach.)
Ach. ; L. urbana Nyl.)

Calcareous stone and wood. The most common lichen. Abundant
throughout the suburbs but in Central London confined to open
spaces, e.g., formerly abundant on the open bombed sites in the
CITY, but absent from high density Mayfair and Soho. Forms a
zone on calcareous substrata above high-water mark (above a zone
of green algae) along the River Thames throughout the Area. Occurs
at high-water mark on wooden piles in the Thames at 10: Battersea
Church Wharf, 1956, Laundon 1723 (BM). At 23: Hogsmill Valley
Sewage Works, it is abundant on wooden railway sleepers. All the
inner records are represented by forma dissipata (Nyl.) B. de Lesd.,
which frequently forms conspicious black patches on white limestone
walls. The forma albescens (Hoffm.) Laundon is occasionally present
in the Suburban Ring. Recorded from CITY, 1-14, 16, 17, 19-25,
27-32.

[L. exp aliens Ach.

Wood.

30: Mill Hill, “on pales”, Crombie (BM, with Lecidea symmicta var.
symmictera ).]

L. muralis (Schreb.) Rabenh. (. Lichen muralis Schreb.; Squamaria muralis
(Schreb.) Elenk.)

Acid and calcareous stone and wood, chiefly in habitats with low
evaporation rates. Nitrophilous. Well distributed, and common
on asbestos-cement sheeting in the Suburban Ring.

Inner records: 1: Belgravia, Little Chester Street, on asbestos-cement
roof, 1968, Wallace; 2: St. Pancras, Wren Street, St. Andrew’s
Gardens, one plant on chest-tomb, 1967. Also recorded from 4-6,
11-14, 17, 19-22, 24, 25, 27-32.

[ L . pallida (Schreb.) Rabenh. (. Lichen albellus Pers.)

Smooth bark.

13: Walthamstow, “wood near Hale End”, Forster MSS.]

[L. piniperda Korb.

Wood.

29/30: “On old pales. Near Edgware”, 1872, Crombie (BM). 30:
Mill Hill, Crombie (BM).]

L. polytropa (Hoffm.) Rabenh.

Acid stone. Rare. New to the Area.

19: Penge, Anerley Hill, covering a sandstone pier coping at St.

56

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Katharines, 1968. 27: Greenford, Holy Cross churchyard, two
plants on acid headstone, 1967.

[L. varia (Hoffm.) Ach.

Wood.

7: Blackheath, 1806, Herb. J. E. Smith sheet 1693.12 and misc. lien,
coll. (LINN). 13: Walthamstow, “on rails”, Forster (BM). 30:

Finchley, “on pales”, Crombie (BM).]

Lecidea coarctata (Sm.) Nyl. ( Lichen coarctatus Sm.)

Acid and (rarely) calcareous stone, usually brick walls. Scarce.

2: Hampstead, garden wall, 1960, Brightman; Waterlow Park, on brick
wall, 1958. 4: Finsbury Park Road, on brick wall dividing No. 74-76,
1958-60. 6: Blackheath, Lee Road, Manor Way and Morden Road,
on brick walls, 1968, Milne (Herb. Milne). 7: Blackheath, Camden
Row, on wall, 1968, Milne . 13: Walthamstow, “on bricks . . . near

Salter’s Buildings”, Forster in Crombie (1885, p. 65). 19: Becken¬

ham, Brackley Road, 1968, Wallace ; Bromley, Church House
Grounds, rock garden, 1963. 20: Shirley, Cheston Avenue, on

crumbling brick wall, 1967, Wallace; Shirley, West Way, 1969,
Wallace. 22: Mitcham Watermeads, on brick weir, 1967; Morden
old wall to north of St. Lawrence’s church, 1962. 24: Kew, Royal
Botanic Gardens, on brickwork of wall, 1960, Gilbert (Herb. Gilbert),
several plants in the Rock Garden, 1968; Petersham, St. Peter’s
churchyard wall, a few plants, 1968; Richmond, brick wall in riverside
gardens, 1962; Richmond Park, on brick, 1956, Gilbert. 30: Hendon,
“brick walls”, Crombie (BM). 32: Southgate, Christ Church church¬

yard wall, on brick and mortar of coping, 1968.

L. fuscoatra (L.) Ach. (. Lichen contiguus Sm., ?pro parte, non Verrucaria
contigua Hoffm.)

Acid stone. Rare.

9: Kennington, on brick walls, Smith & Sowerby (1801, tab. 821). 13:

Walthamstow, Forster MSS. 21: Beddington, Church Lane, scarce
on brick of old wall, 1968.

L. granulosa (Hoffm.) Ach. (L. flexuosa (Fr.) Nyl. (1856), non Fr. (1825) )

Mor ( = raw humus) and decaying bark and wood. Scarce.

10: Putney Heath, scarce amongst Calluna , 1958-61. 19: Bromley,

Logs Hill, common on decayed fence, 1957. 22: Wimbledon Com¬
mon, occasional on mor, 1956. 24: Barnes Common, scarce on soil,

1958; Richmond Park, Pond Plantation, on fallen branch near
Eastern Boathouse of Upper Pen Pond, 1931, Richmond Park Com¬
mittee (K). 29: Little Stanmore, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, on

timber, 1965. 30: Finchley, “old pales”, Crombie (BM); near Mill

Hill, “on old pales”, 1870, Crombie (BM). 31: Queen's Wood,

scarce on stump, 1958.

[L. limitata (Scop.) Gray ( L . elaeochroma (Ach.) Ach. ; F. olivacea Massal. ;
L. parasema (Ach.) Ach. pro parte)

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, Forster (BM, with Buellia canescens ).]

F. lucida (Ach.) Ach.

Brick walls and acid gravestones. Scarce.

6: Blackheath, Morden Road Mews, on crumbling mortar on shaded
brick wall, 1968, Milne (Herb. Milne). 19: Bromley, Church Road,
on wall, 1963; Bromley, College Slip, on mortar of old brick wall,
1962-66. 21: Beddington, Church Lane, scarce on old brick wall,

LONDON’S LICHENS

57

1958 [absent, 1964]. 25: Syon Park, scarce on brick wall, 1958.
30: East Barnet, St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on vertical surface
of headstone, 1968; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, scarce on
shaded gravestone, 1957.

[L. scalaris (Ach.) Ach. (L. ostreata (Hoffm.) Schaer. ; Lichen scalaris Ach. ;
Psora ostreata Hoffm.)

Decorticated wood on timber and stumps.

2: Hampstead, Crombie (BM). 13: Walthamstow, “in garden in Hoe

Street”, Forster (BM). 30: Finchley, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer

(1869, p. 406); Hendon, Crombie (BM); Totteridge, “on old palings”,
1870, Crombie (BM).]

L. stigmatea Ach. ( L . goniophila auct. angl. pro parte, non Florke)

Calcareous stone, chiefly in habitats with low evaporation rates. Com¬
mon on asbestos-cement roofs, but scarce elsewhere.

1 : Regent’s Park, The Holme, on limestone above dried-out pond, 1967.
13: Walthamstow, sides of River Lea, occasional, 1968. 14: Clay-

hall, Rushden Gardens, on asbestos-cement roof of shed, 1966,
I. Tittley (BM); Woodford, St Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on
chest-tomb, 1967. 19: Beckenham, St. Paul’s churchyard wall, 1968,

Wallace. 20: South Croydon, St. Peter’s churchyard wall, 1968,
Wallace. 22: Beddington Sewage Farm, occasional on concrete
channels in Hundred Acre Lane, 1963-64; Merton, Erridge Road,
abundant on asbestos-cement roof, 1968. 24: Kew, Royal Botanic

Gardens, Herbarium Grounds, on asbestos-cement roof of spirit
store, 1967, Edwards (Herb. Edwards); Petersham, St. Peter’s church¬
yard, on headstone, 1968. 27: Perivale, Horsenden Lane, Brown &

Poison’s factory, common on asbestos-cement roof of restaurant,
1968, Edwards (Herb. Edwards). 32: Edmonton, sides of River Lea,
occasional, 1968.

L. sulphurea (Hoffm.) Wahlenb. ( Lecanora sulphurea (Hoffm.) Ach.)

Brick walls. Rare.

13: Walthamstow, “on the wall of Shernhall garden”, Forster (BM).
21: Beddington, Church Lane, locally abundant on old brick wall,
1961-68.

By 1968 the Beddington plants had declined in number and were in poor condition although
still fertile.

[L. symmicta var. symmictera (Nyl.) Hedl. ( Lecanora symmictera Nyl.)

Wood.

30: Mill Hill, on timber, Crombie (BM).]

L. uliginosa (Schrad.) Ach. ( Biatora uliginosa (Schrad.) Fr. ; Lecidea
fuliginea Ach.; L. humosa (Hoffm.) Leight.)

Acid humus soil and decaying wood. Scarce.

2: Hampstead Heath, abundant, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer (1869, p.
406). 6: Woolwich, Castle Wood, on decorticated stump, 1960.

10: Putney Heath, amongst Calluna, 1961. 22: Mitcham Common,

on banks and amongst Calluna on south side, 1964; Wimbledon
Common, rare, 1956-61. 24: Barnes Common, several plants on

soil, 1958-64; Ham Common, frequent, 1966; Richmond Park, on
rotting Quercus, 1947, Commonwealth Mycological Institute (IMI).
30: Finchley, “on old pales”, 1873, Crombie (BM); Mill Hill, “on old
posts”, Crombie (BM).

[Lepraria candelaris (L.) Fr. ( Crocynia flava (Schreb.) Hue nom. illeg. ;
Lepraria flava (Schreb.) Sm. nom. illeg.)

Shaded bark and wood.

58

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

7: Blackheath, on timber, Herb. /. E. Smith misc. lich. coll. (LINN).
13: Walthamstow, Forster MSS.]

L. incana (L.) Fr. ( Lepraria aeruginosa auct., non (Weiss) Sm.)

Shaded bark and shaded stone, rarely on shaded acid soil with little or
no humus development. Occasional, chiefly in the Suburban Ring
and beyond.

1 : Regent’s Park, The Holme, frequent on shaded mortar, clinker and
plant roots, 1967. 6: Blackheath, Morden Road Mews, on brick

wall, 1968, Milne (Herb. Milne); Oxleas Wood, scarce on bark, 1960.
7: Lee Terrace, St Margaret’s churchyard, 1968, Milne. 8: Dulwich,
frequent on disused tunnel wall at Crescent Wood Road, 1968. 12:

Brompton Cemetery, rare on gravestone, 1956. 13: Leyton, St.

Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1969; Upper Waltham¬
stow, Epping Forest, scarce on Carpinus, 1960; Walthamstow, Forster
MSS. 19: Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, on bark, 1968,
Wallace; Beckenham, St. Paul’s churchyard, on wood and stone,
1968, Wallace; Bromley, Church Road and Church House Grounds,
on walls, 1963; Bromley, College Slip, frequent on walls, 1966;
Bromley, Logs Hill, frequent on sandy banks, 1964;Bromley, Mavel-
stone Road, frequent on acid wall, 1957-64; Elmstead Wood, rare at
base of tree, 1956. 21: Beddington, Church Lane, several plants,
1964-68; Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1964; Bedding-
ton Sewage Farm, on Irrigation Bridge, 1962-63; Carshalton, The
Grove, common on stones in rock garden, 1965. 22: Merton,
Church Path, on brick wall, 1964; Mitcham, Tramway Path, at base
of Ulmus, 1961; Morden, Central Road, on Ulmus, 1965; Morden
Park, on Ulmus, 1962; Morden, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce,
1965; Ravensbury Park, on brick wall and on Platanus, 1961-66;
Wimbledon Common, scarce, 1956-66; Wimbledon, Marryatt Road,
on vertical shaded stone in garden, 1954, Laundon 856 (BM); Wimble¬
don, St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1962. 23: Coombe Hill, on moss
on wall, 1956; Norbiton, Lower Marsh Lane, on bole, 1966. 24:

Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, “on concrete of pavilion by Tennis
Courts . . . frequent on wall near tow-path, and abundant on wall
near Director’s Office”, Shaw (1961, p. 190); Petersham, St. Peter’s
churchyard wall, a few plants, 1968; Richmond, Petersham Road, on
wall, 1966. 30: East Barnet, St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, on
three chest-tombs, 1968; Gt. Northern London Cemetery, frequent
on one Ulmus, 1960; Mill Hill, frequent on roadside Ulmus trees, and
on Fraxinus by Totteridge footpath, 1957; Totteridge, on brick and
concrete, 1957; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, scarce, 1957-64.
31: Alexandra Park Road, scarce on wall, 1968; Coldfall Wood,
scarce on Quercus and old stump, 1957; Queen’s Wood, scarce on
Quercus, 1958.

[L. me?nbranacea (Dicks.) Vain. ( Crocynia lanuginosa Hue; Leproloma
lanuginosum Nyl.)

Shaded stone.

24: Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, Dar bishire (1906, p. 103).]

[Leptogium lichenoides (L.) Zahlbr. ( L . pulvinatum (Hoffm.) Nyl.)

Calcareous soil.

13: Walthamstow, Hale End, “on the Forest near the Windmill (now
Mill Cottage)”, Forster (BM).]

London’s lichens

59

[L. palmatum (Huds.) Mont. {Lichen palmatus Huds. ; Lichenoides gelatin-
osum tenerius laciniatum, ex fusco purpurascens Dill, in Ray (1724,
P- 72) )

Soil.

2: Hampstead Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF). 13: Wal¬
thamstow, “on the Forest near Hale End”, Forster (BM).]

[L. tenuissimum (Dicks.) Korb. {L. subtile (Schrad.) Torss. ; Lichen subtilis
Schrad.)

Calcareous soil.

13: Walthamstow, “on the Forest near Hale End at the edge of a Clay-
pit”, Forster (BM); “near Hale End, Walthamstow . . . 1791”,
Forster in Herb. J. E. Smith sheet 1701.12 (LINN).]

Ochrolechia androgyna (Hoffm.) Arnold

Bark. Rare.

22: Wimbledon Common, one plant on Betula pubescens in Farm
Ravine, 1956.

[O. parella (L.) Massal.

Brick walls.

6: “Greenwich Park wall”, Forster (BM).]

[Opegrapha atra Pers.

Bark.

13: “ on a tree in the Forest near Chingford Hatch” [on Carpinus ],
Forster (BM, with Opegropha varia ); Walthamstow, Hoe Street and
between Hale End and Chapel End, Forster in Crombie (1885, p. 68).]
[O. herbarum Mont. ( O . betulina Sm. (1811), non Pers. (1794))

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, “on the Forest near Salters buildings”, Forster (BM).]
[O. varia Pers. ( O . diaphora (Ach.) Ach. nom. illeg. ; O. lichenoides Pers. ; O,
rimalis Ach.)

Bark.

13: “ on a tree in the Forest near Chingford Hatch” [on Carpinus ],
Forster (BM). 30: “old trees near Mill Hill” [on Ulmus\, Crombie

(BM).]

[O. vulgata (Ach.) Ach. sensu lato

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, “in the garden, Hoe Street”, Forster in Crombie
(1885, p. 68).]

[ Pannaria pezizoides (Weber) Trevis.

Soil.

24: Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, “on bare ground; formerly common
on slope of bank facing Palace Grounds”, Darbishire (1906, p. 103).]

[ Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach.

Wood.

13: Walthamstow, “on rails of paling in garden in Hoe Street”, Forster
(BM).]

[ P . glabratula (Lamy) Nyl. subsp. glabra tula {Lichen olivaceus sensu
Hudson (1762, p. 446) pro parte, non L.; Lichenoides olivaceum,
scutellis amplioribus verrucosis Dill. (1741, p. 184) pro parte)

Bark.

6: Woolwich, “Shooter’s Hill”, Dillenius {loc. cit .).]

P. physodes (L.) Ach. {Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl.)

Bark and wood. Rare or extinct.

13: Walthamstow, “garden in Hoe Street”, Forster (BM). 24: Richmond

60

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Park, “S.E. of Bog Lodge”, 1929, Summerhayes (K). 30: Mill Hill,
one plant on bark at base of old Ulmus stump by roadside, 1957.

[ P . saxatilis (L.) Ach.

Bark and possibly acid stone.

22: Wimbledon Common, “on trunk of birch”, Johnson (1912, p. 277).
24: Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, Darbishire (1906, p. 102).]

[P. subaurifera Nyl.

Bark.

6: Charlton Wood, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF). 10: near
Tooting, Crombie (1894, p. 252).]

[P. subrudecta Nyl. ( P . borreri auct. pro parte, non (Sm.) Turn.; P dubia
(Wulf.) Schaer. (1840), non (Hoffm.) Florke (1819) )

Bark.

13: Walthamstow, “on apple trees in Hoe Street”, Forster (BM).]

P. sulcata Tayl.

Concrete; formerly also on stumps. Rare.

24: Richmond Park, near Barnes Cemetery, “between Rifle Range and
Poplar Pond, on stump in grassland”, 1930, Ballard & Montford
(K). 31 : Wood Green, Vallance Road, one plant on concrete coping
of front garden wall of No. 14, 1968, E. T. Rose, Laundon.

[P. tubulosa (Schaer.) Bitt.

Wood.

30: Mill Hill, “on larch pales”, Crombie (BM).]

[Peltigera canina (L.) Willd.

Soil. Amongst grasses.

1: “this grows by Roadsides, and on Banks in dry Places — as in Hyde
Park”, 18th century, Hill (BM). 24: Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens,

Darbishire (1906, p. 103).]

[P. polydactyla (Neck.) Hoffm.

Soil.

2: Hampstead, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer (1869, p. 406). 6: Woolwich
Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF).]

[P. rufescens (Weiss) Humb.

Soil.

6: Woolwich Heath, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF).]

[Pertusaria albescens (Huds.) Choisy & Wern. var. albescens {Lichen
discoideus (Pers.) Sm. ; Pertusaria discoidea (Pers.) Malme; P. globuli-
fera (Turn.) Massal.)

Bark. Nitrophilous.

9: Lambeth, on Fagus, herb. Sower by (BM). 13: Walthamstow,

Forster MSS. 32: Southgate, on Quercus, Dillenius, misc. coll.
(OXF).]

[P. amara (Ach.) Nyl. ( Musco-fungus tartaricus albescens rugosus farinaceus
Morison (1699, p. 634); Variolaria faginea auct. pro parte, ?non
(L.) Pers.)

Bark.

2: Hampstead, “on Trees in Cainwood” [Kenwood], Herb. Morison
sheet 634.11 (OXF). 13: Walthamstow, Forster MSS.]

[P. flavida (DC.) Laundon ( Lepraria lutescens (Hoffm.) Ach. ; Pertusaria
lutescens (Hoffm.) Lamy (1878), non (Eschw.) Krempelh. (1874))

Bark.

13: Walthamstow: “on a tree in the woody part of Epping Forest near
Hagger Lane”, Forster (BM).]

LONDON’S LICHENS

61

[Phaeogvaphis dendriticci (Ach.) Miill. Arg. ( Graphis dendritica (Ach.) Ach.)

Smooth bark.

14: “between Woodford Wells & Chingford Hatch”, Forster (BM).]
Physcia adscendens (Th. Fr.) Oliv. emend. Bitt. ( P . tenella sensu Brightman
(1959), non (Scop.) DC.)

Acid and calcareous stone; formerly also on bark. Nitrophilous.
Scarce. For distribution map see Fig. 2e.

13: Walthamstow, “on trees”, Forster (BM). 19: Crystal Palace,

North Tower Gardens, on asbestos-cement roof [now demolished],
1958, Brightman ( loc . cit.); Elmstead Woods Station, frequent on
brick wall, 1956, one plant only, 1964. 20: Shirley, Wickham Road,
on tiled roof, 1969, Wallace ; South Croydon, St. Peter’s churchyard,
1968, Wallace. 21: Beddington, Church Lane, scarce on old brick
wall, 1968; Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent, 1961-64;
Sutton, Benhilton, All Saints’ churchyard, scarce, 1965. 29: Little
Stanmore, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce, 1965. 30: Totteridge,
St. Andrew’s churchyard, occasional, 1964.

[P. aipolia (Ehrh. ex Humb.) Hampe (JP. stellaris var. cercidia (Ach.)
Th. Fr.)

Bark. Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, “on dead branches of a willow tree in the Garden”,
Forster (BM). 29/30: near Edgware, Crombie (BM).]

P. caesia (Hoffm.) Hampe {Lichen caesius Hoffm.)

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Locally frequent in the Suburban
Ring and beyond, chiefly on churchyard memorials.

7: Lee Terrace, St. Margaret’s churchyard, abundant on chest-tomb
dated 1847, 1968, Milne (Herb. Milne); Lewisham High Street, St.
Mary’s churchyard, a few plants on headstone, 1968. 11: Fulham,

All Saints’ churchyard, abundant on two chest-tombs, and scarce on
a third, 1968. 13: Banbury Reservoir, scattered plants on east side,

1968; Walthamstow, “on tiles”, Forster (BM). 14: Wanstead, St.

Mary’s churchyard, frequent, 1956-63; Woodford, St. Mary the
Virgin’s churchyard, abundant on several headstones, 1967. 19:

Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, frequent, 1968; Beckenham,
St. Paul’s churchyard wall, 1968, Wallace. 20: Shirley, Bennets
Way, Devonshire Way, Langland Gardens, Orchard Avenue, West
Way and Wickham Road, 1967-69, Wallace. 21: Beddington, St.
Mary’s churchyard, frequent, 1961-64; Beddington Sewage Farm,
abundant on concrete channels, 1962-69, Laundon 2475 (BM);
Sutton, Benhilton, All Saints’ churchyard, frequent, 1965. 22:
Beddington Sewage Farm, locally abundant, 1962-64; Merton, St.
Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1961-64; Morden Hall Park, on plinth,
1961-64; Morden, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, frequent, 1961-65;
Wimbledon, St. Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1962. 24: Kew,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Herbarium Grounds, a few plants on asbestos-
cement roof of spirit store, 1967, Edwards { Herb. Edwards); Petersham,
St. Peter’s churchyard, on coped stone, 1968; Richmond House,
herb. Sowerby (BM). 25: Syon House Gardens, on edge of small
pond, 1964 [absent, 1968]. 27: Greenford, Holy Cross churchyard,
several plants on two memorials, 1967; Perivale, Horsenden Lane,
Brown & Poison factory, uncommon on asbestos-cement roof of
restaurant, 1968, Edwards (Herb. Edwards). 29: Little Stanmore,
St. Lawrence’s churchyard, frequent, 1965. 30: East Barnet, St.

62

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, abundant on headstones, 1968; Gt.
Northern London Cemetery, scarce, 1960; St. Marylebone Cemetery,
abundant on headstones, 1960; St. Pancras and Islington Cemetery,
frequent, 1957; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, abundant,
1957-64. 32: Cockfosters, Christ Church churchyard, abundant on
headstones, 1968; Edmonton, All Saints’ churchyard, abundant on
several headstones, 1968.

[P. clementei (Sm.) Maas Geest. {Lichen cleitientei Sm.)

Bark.

21: “hedges by Carshalton”, Borrer MS. in Turner & Dillwyn (1805,
facing p. 595) (BM copy).]

[P. leptalea (Ach.) DC.

Bark. Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, “on trees”, Forster (BM, with Physcia adscendens ).]

P. nigricans (Florke) Stiz.

Calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Rare.

19: Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, on limestone memorial, 1968,
Laundon 2648 (BM). 21: Beddington Sewage Farm, Mile Road,

scarce on concrete channel amongst P. orbicularis, 1964, Laundon
2476 (BM).

P. orbicularis (Neck.) Poetsch {Lichen virellus Ach. ; Physcia virella (Ach.)
Flag.)

Calcareous stone; formerly also on bark. Nitrophilous. Occasional,
chiefly in the Suburban Ring, usually on walls or churchyard mem¬
orials. For distribution map see Fig. 2c.

6: Eltham Palace, on limestone wall of bridge, 1968, J. P. Showed.
7: Lewisham High Street, St. Mary’s churchyard, abundant on two
headstones to west of tower, 1968. 13: “on the Forest near Hale

End” [on bark], Forster (BM). 14: Wanstead, St. Mary’s church¬
yard, frequent, 1956. 19: Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, a

few plants on headstone, 1968 ; Beckenham, St. Paul’s churchyard wall,
1968, Wallace; Bromley, College Slip, scarce on mortar of old brick
wall, 1962-66; Bromley, Mavelstone Road, frequent on walls, 1957,
one plant only, 1964; South Norwood Sewage Farm, scarce on con¬
crete channels, 1963-64. 20: Shirley, Devonshire Way, abundant
on concrete at No. 204, 1968, Wallace; Shirley, Orchard Avenue, on
cement at No. 35, 1967-68, Wallace; South Croydon, St. Peter’s
churchyard wall, 1968, Wallace. 21: Beddington, Church Lane,
scarce on old brick wall, 1968; Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard,
occasional, 1961-64; Beddington Sewage Farm, frequent on concrete
channels, 1962-68; Sutton, Benhilton, All Saints’ churchyard,
occasional, 1965. 22: Beddington Sewage Farm, occasional on

concrete channels, 1962-64; Merton, Dorset Road and Erridge Road,
abundant on three asbestos-cement roofs, 1968; Merton, St. Mary’s
churchyard, scarce, 1961; Mitcham Watermeads, a few plants on
mortar on brick channel-wall by small weir, 1966; Morden, St.
Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce, 1964-65; Wimbledon, St. Mary’s
churchyard, occasional, 1962. 24: Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens,
Herbarium Grounds, abundant on concrete top of fire hose depository
and on asbestos-cement roof of spirit store, 1967, Edwards (Herb.
Edwards); Richmond, wall near River Thames, 1956, Gilbert (Herb.
Gilbert) ; Richmond Park, between Pen Ponds and Robin Hood Gate,
Declinata Pond, “on brickwork of bridge over inflow stream”, 1931,

LONDON’S LICHENS

63

Turrill(K ); Twickenham, Warren Footpath, frequent on wall near rol¬
ler skating rink, 1956, Gilbert (Herb. Gilbert). 27: Greenford, Holy
Cross churchyard, one plant, 1967; Hanwell, St. Mary’s churchyard,
on headstone, 1967; Perivale, Horsenden Lane, Brown & Poison
factory, uncommon on asbestos-cement roof of restaurant, 1968,
Edwards (Herb. Edwards). 28: Kingsbury, St. Andrew's church¬
yard, several plants on headstone, 1967. 29: Little Stanmore, St.
Lawrence’s churchyard, occasional, 1965. 30: East Barnet, St. Mary
the Virgin’s churchyard, occasional, 1968; Totteridge, St. Andrew’s
churchyard, occasional, 1957-64. 31: Tottenham, All Hallows’
churchyard, several plants on headstone, 1968. 32: Cockfosters,

Christ Church churchyard, occasional, 1968; Southgate, Christ
Church churchyard, on two headstones, 1968.

[P. tenella (Scop.) DC. emend. Bitt.

Wood. Nitrophilous.

7: “Old pales at Blackheath. 1806”, Herb. J. E. Smith sheet 1698.8
(LINN).]

[Physciopsis adglutinata (Florke) Choisy ( Physcia elaeina A. L. Sm.)

Bark. Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, “on an apple tree in garden, Hoe Street”, Forster
(BM).]

Physconia grisea (Lamarck) Poelt ( Physcia grisea (Lamarck) Zahlbr.)
Calcareous stone; formerly also on bark. Nitrophilous. Scarce.
For distribution map see Fig. 2f.

19: Bromley, College Slip, scarce on mortar of brick wall, 1966. 21:
Beddington, Church Lane, scarce on mortar of old brick wall, 1958-68 ;
Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce on headstones, 1961. 24:

Ham, scarce on old brick wall, 1966. 29: Little Stanmore, St.

Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce, 1965. 29/30: near Edgware, on
bark, Crombie (BM).

[P. pulverulenta (Schreb.) Poelt ( Physcia pidverulenta (Schreb.) Hampe)
Bark. Nitrophilous.

30: Totteridge, Herb. Sherard (OXF).]

Polyblastia albida Arnold

Calcareous stone. Probably overlooked.

21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, 1965, Laundon 2513 (BM, slide
coll., confirmed Swinscow).

P. dermatodes Massal. (P. schraderi A. L. Sm.)

Calcareous stone. Probably overlooked. New to the Area.

7: Lee Terrace, St. Margaret’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968, Milne
(BM, det. Swinscow).

[Protoblastenia immersa (Hoffm.) Steiner ( Biatora immersa (Hoffm.)
Sydow; Lecidea calcivora (Schaer.) Massal.; L. immersa (Hoffm.)
Ach. ; Lichen immersus Weber (1778), non Huds. (1762) )

Calcareous stone.

6: Charlton Wood chalk-pit, Cooper (1836, p. 58).]

P. rupestris (Scop.) Steiner
Calcareous stone. Rare.

22: Wimbledon, St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1956-64. 28: Kings¬
bury, St. Andrew’s churchyard, one plant on chest-tomb, 1967. 30:

Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, scarce, 1964.

64

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

[ Ramalina evernioides Nyl. ( Lichenoides lacunosum lacerum, latius &
angustius Dill. (1741, p. 163)

Bark.

21: Beddington and Carshalton, Dillenias (op. cit., p. 164).]

[R. fastigiatci (Pers.) Ach.

Wood.

20: Croydon, on fence, herb. G. Davies (BM).]

[Rhizocarpon obscuration (Ach.) Massal. sensu lato (Lecidea petraea sensu
Crombie, non (Wulf.) Ach.)

Acid pebbles.

13: Walthamstow, Forster in Crombie (1885, p. 67).]

[ Rinodina roboris (Duf. ex Nyl.) Arnold (Lichen sophodes sensu Forster,
non Ach.)

Bark. ?Nitrophilous.

13: Walthamstow, “on the Forest not far from Hale Brinks”, Forster
(BM).]

R. subexigua (Nyl.) Oliv. (Lecanora exigua auct. pro parte, non (Ach.) Fr.;
Rinodina demissa auct., non (Florke ex Korb.) Arnold; R. salina
Degel.)

Calcareous stone; formerly also on acid stone. Nitrophilous. Oc¬
casional, chiefly on concrete, but also found on limestone and
asbestos-cement sheeting.

2: Highgate Cemetery, scarce, 1956. 10: Wandsworth Cemetery,

scarce, 1956. 13: Banbury Reservoir and sides of River Lea,

abundant, 1968; Lockwood Reservoir, occasional, 1964;
Walthamstow, on tiles, Forster in Crombie (1885, p. 63); Warwick
Reservoir (east), abundant, 1968. 14: Clayhall, Rushden Gardens,

on asbestos-cement roof, 1966, I. Tittley (BM). 19: Beckenham and

Penge Grammar School, common on asbestos-cement roof, 1957,
Brightman (1959, p. 104); Bromley, Mavelstone Road, frequent on
walls, 1957-64; Crystal Palace, North Tower Gardens, on asbestos-
cement roof and cement parapet of reservoir, 1958, Brightman (1959,
p. 105); South Norwood Sewage Farm, occasional, 1963-64. 20:
Shirley, West Way Avenue, on concrete, 1969, Wallace; South
Norwood Sewage Farm, abundant on concrete culvert pipes, 1963-64.
21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1961 ; Beddington
Sewage Farm, locally frequent on concrete channels and bacteria
beds, 1963-64; Worcester Park Sewage Farm, on concrete, 1966.
22: Beddington Sewage Farm, frequent on concrete channels, 1963-64;
Merton, St. Mary’s churchyard, scarce, 1961; Mitcham, St. Peter
and St. Paul’s churchyard, 1961 ; Morden Hall Park, on plinth, 1961 ;
Morden, St Lawrence’s churchyard, occasional, 1961-64; Morden,
Victory Avenue, on bird-bath at No. 14, 1961-69; Wimbledon,
Arthur Road, on wall, 1956. 23: Coombe Hill, on concrete, 1956;
Hogsmill Valley Sewage Works, on concrete, 1966. 25: Syon House
Gardens, on plinth of column, 1958. 27: Perivale churchyard,
several plants, 1966. 28: Paddington Cemetery, scarce, 1958. 31:

Banbury Reservoir, abundant, 1968. 32: Banbury Reservoir and

sides of River Lea, abundant, 1968.

Sarcogyne regular is Korb. (Biatorella pruinosa Mudd)

Calcareous stone. Scarce.

10: Streatham Cemetery, scarce on limestone memorial, 1968. 21:
Beddington, Church Lane, scarce on mortar of old brick wall, 1968.

LONDON’S LICHENS

65

22: Morden, Victory Avenue, on roof of shelter [now demolished]
in garden of No. 14, 1960, Laundon 2189 (BM), on bird-bath at No.
14, 1964-69. 24: Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, on tunnel entrance

wall of Temperate House, 1968. 30: Totteridge, St. Andrew’s church¬
yard, scarce on limestone, 1964.

Stereocaulon nanodes Tuck.

On soil on brick wall. Rare. New to the Area.

6: Greenwich, Maze Hill, common on brick wall, 1968, Milne (BM;
Herb. Milne).

S. pi lea turn Ach.

Acid stone. Scarce, but usually in quantity at most localities.

6: Blackheath and Greenwich, Brooklands Park, Lee Road, Manor
Way, Maze Hill, Morden Road, Morden Road Mews, locally
abundant, 1968, Milne (Herb. Milne). 8: Dulwich, abundant on disused
brick tunnel wall at Crescent Wood Road, 1968. 19: Beckenham, Cator
Park, on tile, 1959, Brightman. 20: Shirley, Cheston Avenue,
Orchard Avenue and The Glade, abundant on rough brick walls,
1967, Wallace; South Croydon, St. Peter’s Road, on wall of No. 5a,
1969, Wallace; 22: Mitcham, Mitcham Park, abundant on walls
of No. 48-54, 1965, Laundon 2494 (BM, confirmed Lamb). 24: Barn
Elms Reservoir, locally abundant on east side, 1965.

[Teloschistes flavicans (Swartz) Norm. {Lichen vulpinus auct., non L. ;
Muscus aureus tenuissimus Dill, in Ray (1724, p. 65); Usnea capillacea
citrina, fruticuli specie Dill. (1741, p. 73) )

Bark.

30: Totteridge, Dillenius in Herb. Synopsis (OXF).]

Thelidium decipiens (Nyl.) Kremp. (T. immersum Mudd)

Calcareous stone. Overlooked.

21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1965. 29: Little

Stanmore, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce on chest-tomb, 1965.

T. incavatum Mudd

Calcareous stone. Overlooked.

21: Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1965; Carshalton,
All Saints’ churchyard, scarce on chest-tomb, 1965. 30: East Barnet,
St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, occasional, 1968.

[ Thelotrema lepadinum (Ach.) Ach.

Smooth shaded bark.

13: Walthamstow, “hornbeams”, Forster (BM).]

Toninia aromatica (Sm.) Massal.

Calcareous stone. Rare. New to the Area,

6: Charlton church, 1807, Herb. J. E. Smith misc. lich, coll. (LINN).
19: Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, one plant on limestone
headstone, 1968. 21: Beddington, Church Lane, scarce on mortar
of old brick wall, 1968.

[T. caradocensis (Leight. ex Nyl.) Lahm {Lee idea cciradocensis Leight. ex
Nyl.)

Wood.

30: Hendon, Crombie (BM); near Mill Hill, “on old palings”, 1871,
Crombie (BM).]

[Usnea glabrata (Ach.) Vain. {U. hirta sensu Cromb. (1885, p. 60) pro
parte, non (L.) Weber)

Wood.

13: Walthamstow, “on a rail in our field”, Forster (BM, det. Motyka).]

66

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

[U. intexta Stirt. ( U . hirta sensu Cromb. (1885, p. 60) pro parte, non (L.)
Weber)

Wood.

14: Walthamstow, “on a rail in our field”, Forster (BM, det. Motyka).]
Verrucaria muralis Ach. {Lichen schraderi Ach. nom. illeg. ; Verrucaria
rupestris Schrad. (1794), non (Scop.) Weber (1780) )

Calcareous stone. Probably not uncommon in the Suburban Ring,
but overlooked.

19: Beckenham, St. Paul’s churchyard wall, 1968, Wallace. 20: South
Croydon, St. Peter’s churchyard, 1968, Wallace. 21: Beddington,
St. Mary’s churchyard, on coped memorial, 1965. 22: Morden,
Victory Avenue, on calcareous stones in garden of No. 16, 1961,
Laundon 2260 (BM). on concrete path of No. 14, 1963-64. 27: Han-
well, St. Mary’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1967. 30: East Barnet,
St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, scarce, 1968; Finchley, Wildwood
Road, abundant on coping in garden, 1956.

V. nigrescens Pers.

Calcareous stone. Local. Now confined to memorials in churchyards
and cemeteries.

10: Wandsworth Cemetery, occasional, 1956. 12: Brompton Cemetery,

scarce, 1960. 13: Walthamstow, “on walls”, Forster in Crombie

(1885, p. 69). 14: Wanstead, St. Mary’s churchyard, occasional,

1963; Woodford, St. Mary the Virgin’s churchyard, occasional, 1967.
19: Beckenham, St. George’s churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968. 21:
Beddington, St. Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1961-64; Carshalton,
All Saints’ churchyard, common, 1965. 22: Merton, St. Mary’s
churchyard, scarce, 1961; Morden, St. Lawrence’s churchyard,
occasional, 1961-65; Wimbledon, St. Mary’s churchyard, frequent,
1956-60. 25: Chiswick Old Burial Ground, occasional, 1964. 27:
Greenford, Holy Cross churchyard, occasional, 1967; Hanwell, St.
Mary’s churchyard, occasional, 1967. 29: Little Stanmore, St.
Lawrence’s churchyard, occasional, 1965. 30: Gt. Northern London
Cemetery, scarce, 1960; Hendon, St. Mary Magdalene’s churchyard,
occasional, 1968; St. Pancras and Islington Cemetery, scarce, 1957;
Totteridge, St. Andrew’s churchyard, abundant, 1957-64. 32:
Cockfosters, Christ Church churchyard, on chest-tomb, 1968.

V. viridula (Schrad.) Ach. {Lichen tessellatus Sm.)

On brick and calcareous stone. Rare.

The non-sorediate forma viridula is recorded from 13: Walthamstow,
“on walls”, Forster (BM), and 21: Beddington, St. Mary’s church¬
yard, on ledge near base of limestone memorial, 1965. The sorediate
forma tectorum (Massal.) Laundon is recorded from 22: Beddington
Sewage Farm, Hundred Acre Lane, common on concrete channels
in illuminated situations, 1966, Laundon 2596 (LD) and 2604 (BM).
Xanthoria aureola (Ach.) Erichs. {X. parietina var. aureola (Ach.) Th. Fr.)

Acid and calcareous stone. Nitrophilous. Scarce. For distribution
map of X. parietina (agg.)* see Fig. 2d.

19: Beckenham, St. Paul’s churchyard wall, 1968, Wallace. 20:
Shirley, Devonshire Way, 1968, Wallace; Shirley, Wickham Road,
on tiled roof, 1969, Wallace. 21: Beddington Sewage Farm, several
plants on concrete channels and on Irrigation Bridge, 1962-68. 22:
22: Beddington Sewage Farm, several plants on channels and on

* Xanthoria parietina (agg.) consists of X. aureola and X. parietina sensu stricto.

LONDON’S LICHENS

67

Hundred Acre Bridge, 1962-64; Morden, Victory Avenue, frequent
on asbestos-cement roof of shed, 1961-68. 24: Richmond Park,
near Barnes Cemetery, “brickwork of culvert over ditch, Horse-
paddock”, 1930, Ballard & Montford (K). 27: Greenford, Holy
Cross churchyard, abundant on headstone, 1967. 30: Totteridge,
St. Andrew’s churchyard, scarce on limestone headstone, 1964.

The following plants could not be determined beyond aggregate level
because they were either devoid of both isidia and apothecia (see
Laundon, 1967, p. 324), or were growing in places which did not
facilitate close examination. They belong either to X. aureola or
X. parietina sensu stricto, probably chiefly to the former:

19: Bromley, Mavelstone Road, occasional on wall, 1957-64; Crystal
Palace, North Tower Gardens, numerous small plants on asbestos-
cement roof [now demolished], 1958, Brightman (1959, p. 105); Elm-
stead Woods Station, frequent on brick wall, 1956, scarce, 1964. 20:

Shirley, asbestos-cement roofs, 1967, Wallace; South Norwood
Sewage Farm, three plants on asbestos-cement roof, 1963. 21:
Beddington, Church Lane, several plants on old brick wall, 1958-68;
Hackbridge, Culvers Avenue, on asbestos-cement roof of Avenue
Cottage, 1968. 22: Merton, Dorset Road and Erridge Road, on

asbestos-cement roofs, 1968; Morden, Morden Court footbridge,
one plant on concrete, 1968; Morden, Wandle Road, on roof, 1968.
24: Ham, one plant on old brick wall, 1966; Ham Common, north¬
east part, north edge, on ground below wall of old shed, 1930,
Summerhayes & Milne-Redhead (K); Richmond Park, on stonework
of bridge over ditch west of Bog Lodge, 1930, Summerhayes &
Montford. 29: Little Stanmore, St. Lawrence’s churchyard, scarce,
1965.

X. parietina (L.) Th. Fr. sensu stricto ( Physcia parietina (L.) De Not.)

Bark, wood and stone. Nitrophilous. Scarce or extinct.

7: Blackheath, on wall, Dillenius in Herb. Sherard (OXF). 13: Wal¬
thamstow, on trees, Forster (BM, with Buellia canescens and Physcia
adscendens). 29/30: near Edgware, on Ulmus, Crombie (BM).
North London: on old pales in suburbs, Crombie in Trimen & Dyer
(1869, p. 406).

[X. polycarpa (Hoffm.) Oliv. ( Psoroma polycarpus (HofTm.) Gray)

Wood. Nitrophilous.

7: “Old pales at Blackheath. 1806”, Herb. J. E. Smith sheet 1698.8
(LINN).]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Mr. E. B. Bangerter, Mr. P. W. James and Mr. R. Ross for
reading the manuscript and for their helpful suggestions, and Mr. P. J.
Edwards, Mr. J. L. Gilbert, Mr. A. R. Milne, Mr. E. T. Rose and Miss
N. Wallace for sending me their recent records. I am also grateful to
Mr. J. A. Burton and Miss M. E. Kennedy for providing transport to
some interesting localities.

REFERENCES

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ANON. 1968. Air pollution. Rep. Warren Spring Lab., 1966, 47-60.

BARKMAN, J. J., 1958. Phytosociology and Ecology of Cryptogamic Epiphytes. Assen, Nether¬
lands.

BRIGHTMAN, F. H., 1959. Some factors influencing lichen growth in towns. Lichenologist,
1, 104-108.

68

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

BRODO, I. M., 1966. Lichen growth and cities: a study on Long Island, New York. Bryologist,
69, 427-449.

BUCK, F. D., editor, 1964. Natural history of the garden of Buckingham Palace. Proc. S.
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BURROWS, R., editor, 1950. Halsbury’s Statutes of England, Ed. 2, 17.

CHANDLER, T. J., 1965. The Climate of London. London.

CHANDLER, T. J. 1967. Absolute and relative humidities in towns. Bull. Am. Met. Soc.,
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COOPER, D., 1836. Flora Metropolitana. London.

COPPOCK, J. T. and PRINCE, H. C., editors, 1964. Greater London. London.

CROMBIE, J. M., 1885. On the lichen-flora of Epping Forest, and the causes affecting its recent
diminution. Trans. Essex Field Club, 4, 54-75.

CROMBIE, J. M., 1894. A Monograph of Lichens Found in Britain, 1. London.

DARBISHIRE, O. V., 1906. The wild fauna and flora of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
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DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH, 1945. Atmospheric
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DICKSON, J., 1790. Plantarum Crypt ogamic arum Britanniae , 2. London.

DILLENIUS, J. J. 1741. Historia Muscorum. Oxford.

GILBERT, O. L., 1968. Bryophytes as indicators of air pollution in the Tyne Valley. New
Phytol., 67, 15-30.

GOODMAN, G. T. EDWARDS, R. W. and LAMBERT, J. M., editors, 1965. Ecology and
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HILL, J., 1759*. Flora Britanica. London.

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209-212, 329-345, 373-376.

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JAMES, P. W., 1965. A new check-list of British lichens. Lichenologist, 3, 95-153.

JAMES, P. W., 1966. A new check-list of British lichens: additions and corrections — 1. Lichen¬
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JOHNSON, W., 1912. Wimbledon Common, its Geology, Antiquities and Natural History. London.

JONES, A. W., 1961. The vegetation of the South Norwood or Elmers End sewage works.
London Nat., 40, 102-114.

JUNGE, C. E., 1963. Air Chemistry and Radioactivity. London.

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NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR CLEAN AIR , 1964. Sulphur Dioxide as an Atmospheric Pollutant.
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RAO, D. N. and LEBLANC, F., 1966. Effects of sulphur dioxide on the lichen alga, with special
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♦Published either 1759 or 1760. See Jackson (1881, p. 232).

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69

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{Received March 1969; brought up to date , February 1970).

The Behaviour of Common Carp ( Cyprinus cavpio L.)
and Crucian Carp ( Carassius carassias L.) 3S indicated

by Angling Records.

By David Marlborough
( Recorder of Fishes)

INTRODUCTION

Moat Mount, the water considered here, has already been described
(Marlborough, 1963 and 1967).

Angling results were used in the latter paper, and can be further
analysed to yield information on the behaviour of the two Carps. Coulson
(1968 and 1969) presents a similar exercise to the present one, on the Eel,
Anguilla anguilla L. Beukema (1969a and 1969b) provides an experi¬
mental approach to Common Carp.

METHODS

The angling diaries used in Marlborough (1967) were used, but many
of the earlier records were bare lists. Therefore only fuller records from
August 20, 1956 to November 22, 1959, with some from the tagging experi¬
ment 1961 to 1962 ( q.v .), were used. The variables considered for analysis
were:

(a) Numbers, weights and species of Carp caught.

(b) Water temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and degrees Celsius.

(c) Number of hours spent fishing. Normally two rods were used.

70

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Coulson (1968 and 1969) used “rod-hours”, i.e. hours spent by each
rod. The times of starting and stopping are recorded, and time spent
by day or by night divided by official “lighting-up” time.

(i d ) Bites experienced — i.e. the total of indications clear enough for the
angler to strike, fishes actually taking the bait. The fish hooked and
lost are counted here also. These were few (c/. Beukema) because
the average size of the fish was small (Marlborough, 1967) and the
tackle adequate.

(c) Situation of the bait. Only two contrasting pairs of conditions could
be taken :

(i) Either “weedy” . . . bait within a metre of large beds of Pota-
mogeton crispus;

or “clear” . . . bait lying in open water more than one metre from
P. crispus beds.

(ii) Either “top” . . . bait floating on the surface of the water. This
was invariably cubes of bread crust. Only Carp were ever taken
by this method;

or “bottom” . . . bait lying close to the bottom. The bait was
normally bread, occasionally maggots or worms, presented by
legering or float-fishing. Beukemar does not distinguish between
baits either. Large enough pieces were used to deter most fish
other than Carp.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

(a) Temperature Behaviour. More time was spent fishing in summer than
in winter, so the hours taken to catch a fish at each temperature were
calculated. The range of variation was considerable, especially because
of the smaller sizes of the low-temperature samples : so the means of tem¬
perature ranges were considered (Table I).

TABLE I

Temperature
Range °F

Temperature
Range CC

Crucian Carp

Common Carp

Number of

Hours per

Number of

Hoirrs per

Fish

Fish

Fish

Fish

32-40

0 - 4-5

0

0

0

0

41-50

50-100

17

2-5

3

14-5

51-60

1 0-6 — 1 5-6

16

2-2

5

7-1

61-70

1 6-1-21-1

23

12-9

74

4-0

71-80

21-6-26-6

2

7-8

9

1-7

OVERALL

58

6-8

91

4-3

It is seen that most Common Carp are taken above 50°F (in fact
56:F), whereas Crucian Carp are caught throughout the range.

In the past it has been generally agreed that Common Carp either fast
or reduce feeding at low temperatures (Moen, 1954; Grimalschi, 1939),
though this generalisation is disputed by Gibbinson (1968). Walker (1952)
further suggests that the feeding range of Common Carp lies between
58 '¥ to 68;F (14-5=C to 20-0cC). This range is similar to that observed
in Moat Mount, 56 to 71°F (13-3 to 2 1-6°C).

Maximum activity within a narrow temperature range is known as

BEHAVIOUR OF COMMON CARP AND CRUCIAN CARP

71

stenothermy. It seems Moat Mount Common Carp are mainly steno-
thermic.

Hours per fish in Common Carp decrease with increasing temperature.
A plot for all readings of log hours per fish against log temperature °C
for Common Carp shows this as well, confirming the more limited picture
in Table I. The relationship is shown in Graph I.

G '"ixpt'v On
Co mm on Cox \

A negative regression line can be drawn of points over 13°C (54°F).
There is no reversal, indicating that up to the limit of the observed tem¬
peratures, the activity of Common Carp is still increasing. The observed
temperatures had not yet reached the “final preferendum'’ (Fry, 1957) for
the Common Carp, found by Pitt, Garside and Hepburn (1956) to be
32°C (89-6°F).

Kubo (1936) notes an exponential function for the “feeding velocity”
of the Japanese Eel, Anguilla japonica.

In Crucian Carp, numbers are found throughout the recorded tem¬
perature range, but hours per fish rises within the Common Carp’s
maximum-activity range. A logarithmic plot confirms this: the catch
rate is roughly constant except where Common Carp are most active in
Graph II. This may be due to inter-specific competition.

Eurythermism (activity over a wide temperature range) is not generally
mentioned in the literature of Crucian Carp; it may be a characteristic
of this population only, van Duijn (1956) compares the oxygen con¬
sumption of Goldfish and “Prussian Carp” ( Carassius spp.) with that of
Common Carp. His table (after Smolian, 1920) shows that oxygen con¬
sumption (a measure of overall activity) of these Carassius spp. is double

72

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

QitXOh l WO
Gruc u in Car

P-

lo^to Wf

that of Common Carp at lower temperatures, and is not even approxi¬
mately equal until 12-5°C (54-5°F), near the 56°F level previously noted.
It has also been reported that a group of specialist anglers, the National
Crucian Carp Specimen Group, catch Crucian Carp in winter in other
waters (Seabrook, 1969).

There were not enough results to analyse temperature behaviour, etc.
of different sizes of Carp in this way: but Meuwis and Heuts (1957) shows
differences in reaction to temperature between Carp of different sizes.

(b) Behaviour by Night and Day. Table II was drawn up, of hours per
fish for each species by night and by day.

TABLE II

Species of Fish

Day

Night

Overall

Crucian Carp

Number of fish

45

13

58

Hours fished

302-5

96

398-5

Hours per fish

6-7

7-4

6-9

Common Carp

Number of fish

36

55

91

Hours fished

302-5

96

398-5

Hours per fish

8-4

1-8

4-4

It is apparent that Crucian Carp are caught at about the same rate in
both, but that these Common Carp are strongly nocturnal. It may be
argued that they may, rather, be crepuscular — i.e. most active in the dusk.

BEHAVIOUR OF COMMON CARP AND CRUCIAN CARP

73

But the division between “night” and “day” comes after a long “dusk”
period — the “day” rate would be enhanced. Fishing experience shows
that these Carp bite well from dusk until 02:00 hours. Coulson (1968
and 1969) shows a similar preference in the Eel, but uses an intermediate
“twilight” period.

Such nocturnal preference may be true of this population only; but it
is noted and discussed in Gibbinson (1968).

The overall figures for each species reflect their relative abundance
(Marlborough, 1967).

( c ) Behaviour with other Variables. No check was kept on the hours
fished with the bait in weedy/clear water, or on top/bottom. The
relative frequency of catching the two species was used to consider these
in Table III.

TABLE III

Weedy water

Clear water

Surface

Bottom

Day

Crucian Carp

5

39

6

48

Common Carp

17

18

16

20

Night

Crucian Carp

2

12

10

13

Common Carp

3

51

70

11

The “top” and “bottom” columns include fishes taken in the 1961-1962
tag scheme.

Crucians seem to be in clear water rather than near weeds by day,
whereas Common Carp are taken in both. At night, very few of either
are in the weeds — possibly because of carbon dioxide production in the
dark? Differences between the species are statistically significant by day*
not so by night.

Common Carp seem more active on the surface by day compared with
Crucian Carp. Surface activity increases in both species by night.
Both relationships are statistically significant. Surface activity in
Common Carp is well known (e.g. Walker, 1952), but Crucian Carp are
normally regarded as largely bottom feeders {ibid.). Again, this may be
true only of Moat Mount Crucian Carp, for other populations in the
L.N.H.S. Area are much more confirmed bottom feeders.

( d ) Response to Angling. Angling is the sampling method, but perhaps
the Carps’ reaction to baits may alter with their experience of them.
Beukema (1969a and 1969b) shows in his experiments that Common Carp
learn to avoid baits after only one experience of being hooked.

Moat Mount was heavily fished during the sampling period, as shown
by the number of seasonal permits taken out (Cave, 1961). Table 4 was
accordingly drawn up using angling seasons (June 15 to March 15).

TABLE IV

Angling Season

Number of Anglers
(after Cave)

Crucian Carp
Hours per fish

Common Carp
Hours per fish

1956-1957

84

3-2

10-2

1957-1958

101

5-2

2-8

1958-1959

106

20-1

403

1959-1960

103

17-8

8-9

74

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

In both species the number of hours per fish increases : Common Carp
1956-1957 and Crucian Carp 1959-1960 are based on only 5 out of 91 and
3 out of 58 fish respectively.

Two reasons may be suggested for this. Either the number of bites
from both species falls, or the fish take less boldly and are less likely to be
hooked, the more experience of angling they encounter. Both may be
checked in Table V.

TABLE V

Angling Season

Hours per “bite”

“E” (efficiency)

1956-1957

1-9

0-48

1957-1958

1-5

0-61

1958-1959

1-5

0-42

1959-1960

2-9

0-54

“E” (efficiency) is the ratio of fish taken to the bites experienced per
session. Species are not considered separately, as one cannot know
which Carp caused an unhooked bite. Nor, might one add, can you
know whether it was a Carp biting, or some other species. But few other
species were in fact taken ; and the sessions when they were are not counted
in these calculations. Other safeguards are discussed in “Methods”.

The table in fact shows little change in either measurement, and no
obvious trend. Probably there are too many variables in the situation
(e.g. increasing angling skill at hooking the bites — I hope!), or too few
fish and sessions in the sample.

(e) Efficiency under various conditions. The ratio “E” can be compared
in a variety of conditions, as in Table VI.

TABLE VI

“E” efficiency

Day

Night

Surface

Bottom

Weedy

Clear

0-54

0-57

0-59

0-57

0-70

0 51

The ratio is around 0-5 in the Table, except in “weedy” water. A
possible reason could be lower visibility of the tackle in weeds to the fish:
but then the “night” ratio would be enhanced. One would expect friction
of weeds on the line to produce more abortive bites, not less — unless the
friction was so great only the boldest bites were registered. Again,
Common Carp are normally bolder biters than Crucian Carp (Walker,
1952), and from Table III, more abundant in weeds. Perhaps the Carps
simply feel more secure in cover and bite more boldly: but from Table III
again, would this apply to Crucians?

A final suggestion, that Potamogeton crispus weed is most abundant in
Moat Mount during the warmer months, and the ratio may be tem¬
perature-dependent, can be checked by Table VII.

BEHAVIOUR OF COMMON CARP AND CRUCIAN CARP

75

TABLE VII

Temperature °F

Temperature °C

Mean “E”, efficiency

41-50

50-100

0-61

51-60

10-6-15-6

0-56

61-70

161-21-1

0-53

71-80

21-6-26-6

0-75

It shows that temperature does not apparently affect the ratio greatly,
except in the highest and lowest ranges, with fewest sessions. Here, as
with some of the other ratio tables, one may query whether a relationship
is not masked by pooling figures from two species of such differing
response to temperature and other conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

From this small observational sample, few firm conclusions can be
drawn, though they may indicate lines of future work. This “creel
census” (Lagler, 1952) also demonstrates various physiological and
behavioural processes at work in the wild.

(a) The Common Carp of Moat Mount are stenothermic, their most
active temperature range being comparable to those quoted by other
authors. Within this range their activity is related logarithmically to
temperature.

(. b ) Crucian Carp in Moat Mount are eurythermic, but with a reduced
rate of capture at temperatures when the Common Carp are most active.

(c) Moat Mount Common Carp are markedly nocturnal in their feeding
habits, unlike the Crucian Carp.

( d ) Moat Mount Crucian Carp seem to spend the daytime in open water,
whereas the Common Carp are taken in both weeds or clear water.
Neither seem to favour weedy water at night.

( e ) Common Carp in Moat Mount are frequent surface feeders by day and
night, whereas Crucian Carp largely feed on the surface by night only.

(/) There is evidence that each fish needs longer to catch as time continues
and angling pressure increases.

(g) Angling in weedbeds produces a higher proportion of bites where the
fish is hooked.

REFERENCES

BEUKEMA, J. J., 1969a. The phenomenon of learning ability of different species of fish with
regard to angling. Proceedings of the Fourth British Coarse Fish Conference , in press.

- , 1969b. Angling experiments on various strains of carp (domestic wild and hybrids).

Comparison of strength and stamina of different strains. Proceedings of the Fourth
British Coarse Fish Conference, in press.

CAVE, F. J., 1961. Personal Communication from Hendon Borough Engineer.

COULSON, T. M., 1968. A report on the 1967 session reporting scheme. National Anguilla
Club.

- . 1969. A report on the 1968 reporting schemes. Bulletin of the National Anguilla Club, 5,

63-112.

van DUIJN, C., 1956. Diseases of Fishes. Water Life, London.

FRY, F. E. J., 1957. Effect of Environment on Animal Activity. Univ. Toronto Studies Biol.,
Ser. No. 55 (Publ. Ontario Fisheries Research Lab., No. 68).

GIBBINSON, James A., 1968. Carp. MacDonald. London.

GRIMALSCHI, V., 1939. Zur Frage der Ernahrung der Fische in den Deltagew'assern v'ahrend
der Winterziet. Bull. Acad. Roumaine, 21, Bucharest, 206-210.

76

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

KUBO, I., 1936. Feeding velocity of the Eel Anguilla japonica in relation to water temperature and
other environmental conditions. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fisheries , 4, 335-338.

LAGLER, K. F., 1952. Freshwater Fishery Biology. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa.
MARXBOROUGH, D., 1963. The surface temperature variations of a small Middlesex pond.
Fhe Naturalist , April/June, 63-68.

- , 1967. Some studies on Common Carp ( Cyprinus carpio L.) and Crucian Carp ( Carassius

carassius L.) in a small Middlesex pond. Fond.. Nat., 46, 76-81.

MEUWIS, A. L. and HEUTS, M. J., 1957. Temperature dependence of breathing rate in carp.
Biol. Bull. Woods Hole , 112, 97-107.

MOEN. T., 1954. Food habits of the carp in three Northwest Iowa Lakes. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci.,
60, 665-686.

PITT, T. K., GARDSIE, E. T. and HEPBURN, R. L., 1956. Temperature selection of the carp
(C. carpio Linn.). Canad. J. Zool., 34, 555-557.

SMOLIAN, K., 1920. Merkbuch der Binnenfischerei. Berlin.

WALKER. Richard, 1952. Still Water Angling, Macgibbon and Kee, London.

SEABROOK, G. S., 1969. Personal communication.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Mr. F. J. Cave, Borough Engineer and Surveyor
in the former Hendon Borough Council, for his assistance and interest;
and Dr. J. J. Beukema of the Dutch Organisatie ter verbetering van de
Binnenvisserij, Utrecht, for stimulating me to recommence a series of
analyses temporarily shelved.

( Received September 1969 )

Observations on the Return of Fishes to a Polluted Tributary of the River
Thames 1964-9 -

Observations on the return of fishes to a
polluted tributary of the River Thames 1964-9

By B. S. Meadows

THE River Lee is a major tributary of the Lower Thames and during
the 19th century appears to have supported a fish fauna typical of
unpolluted lowland chalk streams (references quoted in Wheeler, 1958).
With increasing industrial development of the lower catchment area in
the early 20th century there occurred a parallel deterioration in water
quality and the lower reaches of the River Lee became fishless (Pentelow,
1955). Surveys carried out by staff of the Lee Conservancy Catchment
Board during the mid-sixties showed that the principal cause of pollution
in the lower reaches of the river is the discharge from Pymmes Brook
which enters the River Lee at Tottenham Hale (Grid Ref.: TQ 347890).
The Pymmes Brook receives run-off from a number of small tributaries,
which drain heavily built-up areas, and also contains the effluent from

RETURN OF FISHES TO A POLLUTED TRIBUTORY OF THE THAMES

77

the Greater London Council’s Deephams Sewage Works at Edmonton.
This works treats a dry weather flow of 40 million gallons per day to the
Royal Commission standard of 30 p.p.m. and 20 p.p.m. for suspended
solids and biological oxygen demand, respectively. Upstream of the
confluence with Pymmes Brook the River Lee is unpolluted but due to
abstraction of most of the flow in its upper reaches for public water supply
the dry weather flow rarely exceeds 20 million gallons per day and this
is insufficient to adequately dilute the Pymmes Brook discharge with the
result that serious pollution is detectable downstream. The two para*
meters which seem to be the limiting factors in the development of a
viable coarse fishery in the River Lee are low oxygen and occasional high
free ammonia concentrations. The latter appears to have been due to
spent ammoniacal liquor from gas works being discharged into Deepham’s
sewers. There has, however, been an improvement during recent years
and this has occurred because of remedial measures which have been
undertaken by local authorities and industrialists in treating waste waters
to higher standards (Lee Conservancy Catchment Board, 1967-70).
The improved conditions have resulted in a return of certain species of
fish to the Lower Lee.

Although I have made qualitative observations on the return of the
fish fauna throughout the tidal and non-tidal Lower Lee this short note
deals only with the return of fishes in a section between Willow Point
Bridge and Hackney Power Station (see Location Map), page 78. This
section has been looked at by the author as part of a wider study on the
effects of heated sewage effluents and as a result changes in the flora,
invertebrate population and chemical quality have also been monitored.

The Return

In 1964 conditions were still grossly polluting with free ammonia
concentrations at times exceeding 65 p.p.m. and oxygen often less than
0-5 p.p.m. Apart from eels Anguilla anguilla the river was fishless.
Three-spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus were first found in the
tidal section in 1965 and had reached the River Lee at Hackney during
the same year. The origin of these fish and other native species has
probably been by downstream migration from the upper reaches since
the weir at Lea Bridge Road is an effective barrier for fish migrating
upstream from the tidal reaches and until 1969 there was a highly septic,
fishless zone in the canalised section between Old Ford Lock and Hackney
Power Station. In 1966 Mr. R. Harris obtained a specimen of the South
American Guppy Poecilia reticulata and subsequent collecting by the
author showed that a resident breeding population had been established
at Hackney (Meadows, 1968). There has been at least one previous
record of this species becoming established in a wild state in the British
Isles (Dumbill, 1967). In 1968 further improvement in oxygen levels
occurred and bleak Alburnus alburnus, roach Rutilus rutilus and gudgeon
Gobio gobio became established. Bleak appeared to be most numerous
of these three species and on one occasion I was able to collect over 300
individuals with a small handnet in two hours. Perch Perea fluviatilis
did not become resident until the oxygen concentration was always well
above 1 p.p.m. and this supports experimental work on the higher oxygen
requirements of this species as compared with the other species that have
colonised the River Lee at Hackney (References quoted in Jones, 1964).

78

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Location Map.

RETURN OF FISHES TO A POLLUTED TRIBUTORY OF THE THAMES 79

Recent work on the tolerance of eggs of perch to thermal pollution may
also limit breeding success at this particular site if the high temperatures
recorded during 1964-9 are maintained (see Swift, 1965). Table 1 sum¬
marises the salient chemical changes during the study period and these can
be compared with the fish records. It can bee seen from this table that the
Lee is unlikely to have been a significant source during the early recolon¬
isation of the Thames (Wheeler, M.S. 1969).

TABLE i

List of fish found at Hackney Grid Ref. TQ 356866

Fish fauna

Year

Dissolved oxygen*
Minimum values
in p.p.m.

Free Ammonia*
Maximum values
in p.p.m.

Taken in all quarters
of the year and spawn
and/or fry observed

Taken on at least
one occasion
(adults only)

1964

< 0-5

65

1965

<0-5

50

Gasterosteus

aculeatus

1966

<0-5

20

Gasterosteus

aculeatus

Poecilia

reticulata

Rutilus

rutilus

1967

<0-5

20

Gasterosteus

aculeatus

Poecilia

reticulata

Rutilus

rutilus

Alburnus

alburnus

1968

1

20

Gasterosteus

aculeatus

Poecilia

reticulata

Rutilus

rutilus

Alburnus

alburnus

Gobio

gobio

Perea

fluviatilis

1969

5

15

Gasterosteus

aculeatus

Poecilia

reticulata

Rutilus

rutilus

Alburnus

alburnus

Gobio

gobio

Perea

fluviatilis

Leuciscus

cephalus

Leuciscus

leuciscus

Nemacheilus

barbatula

Notes. — The River Lee at Hackney is about 19 metres wide with a maximum depth of about 2-5
metres. Due to the discharge from Hackney Power Station, which uses river wrater for cooling
purposes, the temperature is usually raised about 9 degrees Centigrade above normal river
temperature. Weekly temperature readings have shown that the river normally has a range
between 16 and 30 Centigrade. The riverw^ater has a total hardness of 300 p.p.m. (as CaCos), a
bicarbonate alkalinity of 250 p.p.m. (as CaCo3), an average total dissolved solids of 720 p.p.m.
and a pH value of 7-8.
p.p.m. =parts per million.

’Chemical data mainly from Lee Conservancy Catchment Board, 1967-70.

Between 1964-7 the only invertebrates that I found in bed samples
as distinct from collections made from growths of filamentous green
algae (Chlorophyceae), which have been found growing on the banks of
the river since at least 1964, had been oligochaet worms. These worms,
which may occur at densities greater than 20,000 individuals per square
metre, are still the most abundant bottom invertebrates but since 1967
funnel-leaved pondweed Potomogeton pectinatus and more recently
Ceratophyllum demersum have colonised the river and spread rapidly.
This has resulted in a parallel increase in the diversity of macro-inverte-

80

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

brates and over 20 species have now been taken from Hackney. Table II
gives some examples of some invertebrate populations obtained. Fish
that have been seen feeding within the pondweed beds include three-
spined sticklebacks, bleak, roach, gudgeon and stone-loach Nemacheilus
barbatnla. It is of interest that all stone loach so far collected have all
been within the pondweed beds. As pointed out by Marlborough, (1969)
this species is usually found under stones and this is its normal habitat
in the upper reaches of the River Lee.

TABLE II

Numbers of selected animals collected from one square metre of river bed in Spring and Autumn
of 1968/9 by a standardised netting technique.

Station Lee at Hackney — Grid Ref. TQ 356866.

Spring

1968

Autumn

Spring

1969

Autumn

Hirudinea (Leeches) :

Erpodella octoculata

Glossiphonia complanata

2

0

0

11

0

0

0

1

Haemopis sanguisuga

51

19

35

25

Crustacea:

Asellus aquaticus

350

1300

39

2589

Gammarus pulex*

0

0

0

25

Insecta:

Odonata:

Short-bodied dragonfly nymphs

0

0

1

1

Damsel-fly nymphs

3

11

18

33

Ephemeroptera :

Mayfly nymphs

0

0

0

1

Coleoptera :

Beetle larvae

7

0

3

2

Diptera:

Midge larvae

—

—

—

1000

Mollusca:

Bithynia tentaculata

0

0

2

5

Limnaea pereger

15

450

0

500

Limnaea stagnalis

0

0

0

3

Planorbis carinatus

0

0

9

2

Physa fontinalis **

15

55

27

70

*The first gammarids were obtained after floods in 1969. None during the first quarter of 1970.
**At least one other species of Physa, possibly the introduced Mediterranean species Physa acuta,
also occurs at Hackney but specimens have not yet been critically examined.

Little work has been undertaken on the parasites of fish from Hackney.
Most of the adult roach examined have been infected with metacercaria
of Diplostomum spathaceum and in 1968 at least 10% of the total bleak
population seemed to be affected with fin-rot. This outbreak caused
complete degeneration of the caudal fin in all the diseased fish. Guppies
were also affected but sticklebacks and gudgeon were not observed with
any symptoms of the disease. Free-swimming individuals of Argulus sp.
have been taken during net sampling and in 1969 a number of sticklebacks
were carrying this ecto-parasite.

The Future

Locally, such as where the physical character of the river causes the
flow to be very sluggish and where little surface reaeration occurs, there
are still extensive mud deposits. The section of the river between Totten¬
ham Lock and Springfield Park is a case in point. The oxygen demand
of these mud deposits, which may contain over 30 % organic matter, can
still create foul conditions in the River. Statistical analysis of the sus¬
pended solids balance in the river system has been undertaken and this has
showed that a large proportion of the load of solids in the River Lee

RETURN OF FISHES TO A POLLUTED TRIBUTORY OF THE THAMES 81

Navigation could be attributed to the effluent from the above mentioned
sewage works (Lee Conservancy Catchment Board, 1970). Current
research on the river is being aimed to discover if the solids have settling
and oxidising properties which can account for the low oxygen concen¬
tration at certain points along the river and where the fish fauna is still
limited. Up to the present time the bottom muds have been essentially
only inhabited by oligochaet worms but if these are colonised by extensive
populations of chironomid midge larvae as they almost certainly will be
if any further improvement in the oxygen levels at the mud-water interface
occurs a further problem could arise. Like oligochaet worms the chiron-
omids, by their irrigational activities, increase the aerobic layers, but pro¬
bably of greater significance is that after a mass emergence of flies the
upper layers, which will consist mainly of tubes, can easily become bouyed
upwards by gases produced during decomposition in the anaerobic bottom
layers (see also Edwards and Owens, 1965). Such masses of floating
sludge can have a very high oxygen demand and could possibly cause fish
kills by de-oxygenation of the water in downstream areas where fish have
already returned. The mud deposits are highly resistant to erosion despite
their small particle size and mapping the deposits before and after heavy
floods in early 1969, showed no significant change. The Lee Conservancy
Catchment Board thus consider that the suspended solids load must be
reduced and are recommending that the Deephams Sewage Works is ex¬
tended further so that the effluent can comply at all times with a far more
stringent standard than the present consent conditions and that considera¬
tion should also be given to a proposal to dredge the existing bottom
deposits. These further improvements are considered by the Board as
absolutely essential if this part of the River Lee is to maintain and improve
upon its new fishery.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the work of the author’s former col¬
leagues on the staff of the Protection of Water Department of the Lee
Conservancy Catchment Board who carried out much of the analytical
work referred to in this paper. The biological work was a private study,
but I owe a great debt to the Protection of Water Officer, Mr. R. G. Toms,
B.Sc., F.R.I.C., M.Xnst.W.P.C., M.I.P.H.E., for training in the field of
river pollution control.

Mrs. P. A. Moxey was responsible for drawing the map.

REFERENCES

DUMBILL, P., 1967. British Ichthylogical Society Monthly Newsletter , March 1967: 1.
EDWARDS, R. W. and OWENS, M., 1965. The oxygen balance of streams. In Ecology and
the Industrial Society. Oxford.

JONES, J. R. E., 1964. Fish and river pollution. London.

LEE CONSERVANCY CATCHMENT BOARD, 1967-70. Reports for the years ending March
31, 1965-69 inclusive. London.

MARLBOROUGH, D., 1969. Further London Fish Records to 1968. Lond. Nat., 48, 76-85.
MEADOWS, B. S., 1968. On the occurrence of the Guppy Lebistes reticulus in the River Lee.
Essex Nat., 32, 186-189.

PENTELOW, F. T. K., 1955. Pollution and Fisheries. Verb. int. Ver. Limnol., 12, 768-71.
SWIFT, D. R., 1965. Effect of temperature on mortality and rate of development of the eggs of
the pike ( Esox lucius L.) and the perch (Perea fluviatilis L.). Nature, Lond., 206, 528.
WHEELER, A. C., 1958. The fishes of the London Area. Lond. Nat., 37, 80-101.

WHEELER, A. C., M.S. 1969. Progress report on the survey of the fishes of the Lower Thames.
Privately published.

82

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

A Review of the Macrolepidoptera of the
London Area for 1968 and 1969

By C. G. M. de Worms

THE present biennial review of the Macrolepidoptera in the London
Area is a sequel to the rather short treatise covering 1966 and 1967
which appeared in the Lond. Nat. (48, 121-124) and of rather a longer
version which was published in the Proc. of the British Ent. and Nat. Hist.
Soc. (1, 113-123, December 1968).

As in previous similar reviews all aspects of the butterflies and the
larger moths of the Area will be taken into consideration mainly for each
of the Vice-Counties which the Area embraces together with the more
outstanding captures and especial mention of those species which have been
specially abundant or somewhat unaccountably absent for the period
covered. The weather is mainly, if not always one of the chief factors in
regulating the appearance and often the relative abundance of most of our
insect fauna and not least the lepidoptera so that a brief survey of the two
respective seasons would seem advisable at the outset.

The year 1968 was indeed a most capricious one with a very cold
spell during the opening months and early spring. |It was not till the
season was halfway through that some really summer warmth super¬
vened, for it was on the first of July of that year that the thermometer
reached 90°F in the shade. It was immediately followed by the famous
dust storm alleged to emanate direct from the Sahara and by a remarkable
immigration of a number of species of lepidoptera which were supposed
to have accompanied the storm and have been wafted to our shores.
Quite a few of these migrants reached the London Area. This was the
highlight of 1968 of which the late summer was far from settled or warm,
a great contrast to 1969 which also opened very bleakly from February to
May. But during the second half of June a fine spell began which
continued almost unbroken throughout July and halfway through August.
This summer period proved to be one of the best for butterflies for a long
time. The other chief weather feature for 1969 was the record warm and
dry October which brought in another quite phenomenal immigration of
several migrant species together with quite a proportion of unusually rare
ones which were also recorded in the Area.

As in the past quite a number of residents in the Area and also other
collectors have gone to a great deal of trouble to send in their records and
observations, sometimes in long annotated lists covering both seasons and
I would like at the outset to express my sincere thanks and appreciation
to them for their individual efforts which are fully incorporated in these
ensuing pages.

Coming to the record of the more outstanding captures and sightings
for 1968 and 1969 the light-trap which was run as before at intervals in
the garden of Buckingham Palace does not appear to have attracted any¬
thing of special note as it has for previous seasons. Reference has already
been made to the amazing spell of continuous weeks of warmth, chiefly
during July 1969 and the spate of butterflies that accompanied it, not least
of Apatura iris L. (the Purple Emperor) which had one of its most pro¬
lific years this century and it is gratifying that it reappeared again in the
Area. For on July 5, Dr. Geoffrey Beven happened to be walking on

MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF THE LONDON AREA

83

Bookham Common when he espied a male of this grand butterfly busily
feeding on some excrement on the ground. He rushed for his camera to
find it still gorging and he was able to take a superb and possibly unique
photograph in colour of this splendid insect in its natural haunts. I am
not aware of this species being seen on the Common since a pair was
spotted there in 1952. The Area had its quota of several other butterflies
that were especially numerous during 1969, notably Pyrameis cardui L.
(the Painted Lady) which was abundant over most of the British Isles, even
in the Orkney Isles. Many were noted throughout the Area and even in
Inner London. That charming little insect Celastrina argiolus L. (the
Holly Blue) reappeared in some plenty, mainly during the summer of 1969
with a number of sightings in the Area. A notable record by Mr. G. H.
Gush on the fringe of the region at Thorpe in north-west Surrey was
Strymonidia w-album Knoch (the White-letter Hairstreak) which seems to
be quite a new locality for this small butterfly. Red Admirals, Peacocks
and Small Tortoiseshells were reported in great numbers all over the
Area in the late summer of 1969.

As regards the moths as usual there were a series of exceptional and
some most unexpected records for the two years. Mention has been
made of the two remarkable spells for migrants in July 1968 after the
Saharan dust storm and again in the dry October of 1969. During the
former period there was quite an incursion of the tiny noctuid Eublemma
parva Hiibn. (the Small Marbled), one of which found its way into the
moth-trap of Mr. E. W. Classey on July 21, 1968 near Hanworth in
Middlesex. There are apparently only two previous records of this
species for the Area. Another most interesting capture for 1968 was on
October 4 when Mr. C. G. Bruce took at light at Lee, Lewisham Leucania
unipuncta Haworth (the White-speck Wainscot) of which is only one other
for the Area, near Sutton in 1963. This insect is seldom seen inland as is
Leucania albipuncta Hiibn. (the White-point Wainscot) which Mr. Bruce
also noted at Lee on August 8, 1969. Of this insect too there appears
to be only two others recorded for the Area. September of this year
also brought several other most outstanding visitors. On September 8,
Mr. T. G. Haworth took a specimen of Rhyacia simulans Hufn. (the
Dotted Rustic) at Totteridge, Herts, a moth with only two other records
with one at Whetstone in 1963. Mr. R. I. Lorimer who also lives near
Totteridge seems to be favoured with good fortune each year. On
September 14, 1969 there was in his trap a melanic Catocala nupta L.
(the Red Underwing) referable to ab nigra Cockayne, an extremely rare
form of which he had another example there in 1962 so that it is evidently
a stable locally recurring variety. Three days later a fine Heliothis
armigera Hiibn. (the Scarce Bordered Straw) also graced his trap. It is
always a most uncommon migrant which seldom visits the Area. This
month also saw the most remarkable capture of the biennial period with
an insect entirely new to the British Isles which appeared in the moth-trap
of Mr. Terry Dillon at Halsted near Sevenoaks just inside the south¬
eastern boundary of the Area. It is a small noctuid which has been
expertly identified as Plusia aceenfifera Lefebvre, a denizen of most of
Africa and the southern Mediterranean seaboard. It is quite likely this
insect was a genuine migrant.

One of the chief features of the great October immigration was the
prevalence of Cosymbia puppillaria Hiibn. (Blair’s Mocha) which was
recorded almost all over southern England, sometimes several at a time.

84

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

At least two found their way into the London Area, one being noted by
Mr. Bruce at Lee, Kent on the 20 of that month and another at Totte-
ridge by Mr. R. Lorimer on the 22. There are some four eailier
records for the Area of this little moth which was introduced to the
British list in 1950. Another small geometrid which was comparatively
abundant at this period was Nycterosea obstipata F. (the Gem) which
appeared all over the southern counties with many observed in the
London region. It was accompanied by another well-known migrant
among the noctuids Lciphygmci exigua Hiibn. (the Small Mottled Willow)
which was equally prevalent in the Area. At this period too several of
that very attractive small pale geometer Rhodometra sacraria L. (the
Vestal) appeared in the South of England with a record in the heart of
the Metropolis in Queen’s Gate, South Kensington during October, 1969.
But the most astonishing capture on the 29 of that month was an example
of Leucania 1-album L. (the White-L Wainscot) which Mr. J. A. C. Green¬
wood found at rest outside Claridge’s Hotel in Central London. This
insect which first was found in the south-western counties in numbers in
1933, has since colonised their coastline but does not appear to have spread
eastwards of the Isle of Wight and never seems to leave its coastal habitat
so that its appearance in the innermost London is problematical. It
may be inferred that it was accidentally imported by some human agency.
At any rate it is an entirely new species for the Area.

The larger Hawk moths are always a source of attraction and not
least the most famous and spectacular Acherontia atropos L. (the Death’s
Head) which seems to be noted most years in the Area. One of these
huge insects was taken on October 14, 1969 at rest on the wall of a school
at Norbury by Mr. W. Lockyer, while another had its portrait in the local
paper when located at Hartford in September 1968. But its relative,
Herse convolvuli L. (the Convolvulus Hawk) which often appears as a
migrant in the autumn, has been very scarce of late and seems to have
deserted the Area during the past two years. The same can be said of
Macroglossa stellatarum L. (the Humming Bird Hawk Moth) which
sometimes visits our shores in vast numbers.

Among other less frequent species which inhabit the Area, particularly
among the moths, there were several further records of Hadena compta
Schiff. (the Varied Coronet) in Kent (K.16) and for Essex (E2.18), while
both Apatele alni L. (the Alder Moth) and Dicycla oo L. (the Heart Moth)
reappeared in Herts. (H.20). There were too still further records of
Amphipyra berbera Runge (the Dusky Copper Underwing) from most of
the Vice-County regions together with one bred from a larva found in
Hyde Park. Our largest geometer was also observed in North London,
Bocinnia robororia Schiff. (the Great Oak Beauty) in a melanic form, a
most unexpected visitor to so near the centre of the Metropolis.

Analysing and recording for each of the respective Vice-County
regions finds as before a number of species which had not been noted
previously in them. This is due largely to the efforts of a number of local
observers, though the Area has lost a few of the regular and ardent ones
either through death or by leaving it. These new species as usual are
designated by an asterisk*.

Starting with Inner London (I.L.) which often produces some startling
records, not so many have been noted as usual for the two years under
review. As to Buckingham Palace, the only unusual capture in the moth-

MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF THE LONDON AREA

85

trap run in the extensive grounds was Earias clorana L. (the Cream-
bordered Pea), a very diminutive insect which appeared in 1968 and was
also taken in 1953 in Regent’s Park. Reference has already been made
to the amazing capture of Leucania l- album L. (the White-L Wainscot)*
at Claridge’s Hotel in late October 1969, new to the Area and to LL.
Rhodometra sacraria L. (the Vestal) was another most interesting record
from Queen’s Gate in October 1969, though this species had been seen
before in that part of the Metropolis, in 1947. The larva of Amphipyra
berbera Runge (the Dusky Copper Underwing) taken in Hyde Park in
May 1968 by Mr. D. J. Carter was of special interest since its breeding led
to the reliable identification of the larva as compared with that of A. pyra-
midea L. (the Copper Underwing) with which it had been confused for
so long (vide Ent. Gazette , 1969, 20, 86).

Many of the Vanessid butterflies were seen in the centre of the Metro¬
polis, especially in the autumn of 1969, in particular Peacocks, Red
Admirals and Small Tortoiseshells, one of which was spotted fluttering
about Liverpool Street Railway Station in May 1968 by Mr. A. J. Barrett
who wondered if it may have had a free ride in from the outlying country,
while a Red Admiral was observed flying along Euston Road in July 1968.

There were a good many interesting records for Middlesex (M.21) for
the two seasons. Among them the most outstanding was that of Eublemma
parva Htibn. (the Small Marbled)* at Hanworth in July 1968 taken by
Mr. E. W. Classey ( vide Ent. Gazette , 1969, 20, 46) who also reports from
there in August 1968 Parascotia fuliginaria L. (the Waved Black) which
also appeared in that area in 1954 and 1957. For 1969 Mr. Classey records
from his trap at Hanworth Leucania straminea Treits. (the Southern
Wainscot), not apparently seen in that part of M.21 since 1879. Another
unusual visitor for July of that year was Pyrrhia umbra Hufn. (the Bordered
Sallow) of which very few have been seen before in that part of M.21.
On June 30, he had a female Bupalus piniaria L. (the Bordered White)
also a rarity in that district, but 1969 was a year of general abundance
for this species.

From North Harrow Mr. G. Prior records Mania maura L. (the Old
Lady), Zeuzera pyrina L. (the Leopard), P/usia iota L. (the Golden Y) and
the geometers Dysstroma citrata L. (the Dark Marbled Carpet), Ellopia
fasciaria L. (the Barred Red), Selenia tetralunaria Hufn. (the Purple
Thorn) and Eupithecia innotata (the Angle-barred Pug). From Ruislip
Woods he reports Melanthia procellata Schiff. (the Pretty Chalk Carpet),
Bapta bimaculata F. (the White Pinion-spotted), Perizoma fiavofasciaria
Thunb. (the Sandy Carpet), Comibaena pustulata Hufn. (the Blotched
Emerald) and Cosymbia linearia Htibn. (the Clay Triple-lines), also
Chiasmia clathrata L. (the Latticed Heath) from Harefield.

Mrs. Patricia Moxey who lives in the Muswell Hill district enumerated
a number of captures in her house there during the two years. One of the
most unexpected were two females of Leucania pudorina Schiff. (the
Striped Wainscot)*, new to M.21, seen in July 1968. Mention has
already been made to the couple of males and a female of Boannia robo-
raria L. (the Great Oak Beauty) in August of that year, another exceptional
visitor. Other noteworthy records from this locality include Smerinthus
ocellata L. (the Eyed Hawk), Apatele aceris L. (the Sycamore), Euplexia
lucipara L. (the Small Angle-shades), Catocala nupta L. (the Red Under¬
wing), Hemithea aestivaria Hiibn. (the Common Emerald), Ennomos

86

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

quercinaria L. (the August Thorn), Itame wauaria L. (the V-moth) and
many Abraxas grossulariata L. (the Magpie Moth). An interesting
record in July 1968 from Hatch End was Sterrha emarginata L. (the
Small Scallop), seldom a common little geometer.

Among butterflies a Painted Lady was seen at Ealing Common on
July 24, 1969 by Mr. M. P. Walters, while Red Admirals were noted from
mid-July to early October of that year at Wood Green by Mr. C. O.
Hammond who also observed a good many Small Coppers, Wall Browns
and Large Skippers there. Mr. R. Kettle records Pavarge aegeria L.
(the Speckled Wood) in September 1969 from Hampstead Heath where
he also saw Small Coppers and Red Admirals in October.

For Herts. (H.20) Mr. R. I. Lorimer has as usual some outstanding
records. The most notable in 1968 was Hadena compta Schiff. (the Varied
Coronet)* which appeared at his home at Totteridge on July 6. This
insect is steadily spreading in the Area and is a newcomer for H.20.
Another uncommon little moth for this region seen in 1968 was Eupithecia
tantillaria Boisd. (the Dwarf Pug). For 1969 the list is indeed remarkable.
In addition to the melanic Red Underwing already referred to there was
the Cosymbia puppillaria Hiibn. (Blair’s Mocha)* with only four previous
records for the Area and none from H.20. It was taken on October 22,
and coincided with the apparent immigration of this species to the South
of England. A Heliotliis armigera Hiibn. (the Scarce Bordered Straw)*
taken on September 17, was another addition to H.20 and a scarce migrant
which also visited the British Isles this amazing autumn with several
records.

Other migrants at this period included Laphygma exigua Hiibn. (the
Small Mottle Willow) in mid-October, as well as no less than nine of the
small geometer Nycterosea obstipata F. (the Gem) which has been recorded
several times before in that district. Other newcomers to H.20 were a
Leucania obsoleta Hiibn. (the Obscure Wainscot)* which appeared in
early July, also Euphyia unangulata Haworth (the Sharp-angled Carpet)*
and surprisingly the small noctuid Rivula sericealis Scop, (the Straw Dot)*,
apparently quite a rarity in this part of Herts. Other records of note
for 1969 by Mr. Lorimer were Drepana cultraria F. (the Barred Hooktip),
nearly always associated with beech and new to Totteridge where Dicycla
oo L. (the Heart Moth) reappeared after many years, while two examples
of f. nigrofuhata of Semiothisa liturata Clerck (the Tawny-barred Angle)
were also found. This melanic form seems to be becoming increasingly
common in the Area and in the south of England. Mention has been
made of the Rhyacia simulans Hufn. (the Dotted Rustic) also taken at
Totteridge in September 1969 by Mr. T. G. Howarth with only one
previous record for H.20.

Mr. Barry Goater once more has many interesting records for the two
years from Bushey where new visitors to his garden there have been
numerous. These include three Apatele alni L. (the Alder Moth) with
an example of its melanic f. steinarti Caspari in 1968. A very scarce
insect for H.20 but often an abundant one elsewhere was Lycophotia
varia Vill. (the True Lover’s Knot) which appeared in both years as did
Amathes ditrapezium Schiff. (the Triple Square-spot). Other less common
species for H.20 which he reports from near Bushey were Clostera curtula
L. (the Chocolate-tip), Cybosia mesomelia L. (the Four-dotted Footman),
Hadena lepida Esp. (the Tawny Shears), Rivula sericealis Scop, (the Straw
Dot) and Laspeyria flexula Schiff. (the Scarce Hooktip), all in single

MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF THE LONDON AREA

87

specimens during 1968. Among newcomers in the geometers were
Euphyia cuculata Hufn. (the Royal Mantle), Cosymbia linearia Hiibn.
(the Clay Triple-lines), Bupalus piniaria L. (the Bordered White), Abraxas
sylvata Scop, (the Clouded Magpie) and two Pugs new to H.20, Eupithecia
haworthiata Dounbleday (the Haworth’s Pug)*, and Eupithecia fraxinata
Crewe (the Ash Pug)*. Other infrequent species reported by Mr. Goater,
but previously on the Bushey list, comprise Orthosia advena Schiff (the
Northern Drab), Aporophyla lutulenta Schiff. (the Deep Brown Dart),
Caradrina ambigua Schiff. (the Vine’s Rustic) all in 1968 and in 1969
Laphygma exigua Hiibn., Cosmia diffinis L. (the White-spotted Pinion),
Zenobia subtusa Schiff. (the Olive Kidney), Selenia lunaria Schiff. (the
Lunar Thom) and several Nycterosea obstipata F. Mr. Goater also took
the newly-recognised Amphipyra berbera Rungs (the Dusky Copper
Underwing) first in August 1968 at Bushey where it is apparently less
common than A. pyramidea L.

Mr. G. Prior reports a number of interesting species, mainly geometers
from the Rickmansworth area. These include Comibaena pustulata
Hufn. (the Blotched Emerald), Dysstroma citrata L. (the Dark Marbled
Carpet), Electrophaes corylata Thunb. (the Broken-barred Carpet),
Triphosa dubitata L. (the Tissue), Melanthia procellata Schiff. (the Pretty
Chalk Carpet), Bapta bimaculata F. (the White Pinion-spotted), Nothop-
teryx carpinata Borkh. (the Early Tooth-striped) and Selenia tetralunaria
Hufn. (the Purple Thorn).

For South Essex (E2.18) Mr. K. M. Grimwood has once more sent in
a most comprehensive list of his records at Ingrave, near Brentwood for
1968 and 1969, some of the species being new to this Vice-County region.
Among the more interesting newcomers to his trap were Mania maura L.
(the Old Lady), several Harpyia bifida Brahm. (the Poplar Kitten), also
Poiia nitens Haworth (the Pale Shining Brown)*, Cosmia diffinis L. (the
White-spotted Pinion), with also a number of Zenobia subtusa Schiff.
(the Olive Kidney), chiefly in 1969. Most of these insects had been
noted from the Epping Forest area, but were new to this part of E2.18,
while several surprising visitors were Cucullia asteris Schiff. (the Starwort
Shark)*, not recorded before for E2.18 as were too the geometers Anaitis
plagiata L. (the Slender Treble-bar)*, Cosymbia albipunctata Hufn. (the
Birch Mocha)* and Pseudoboarmia punctinalis Scop, (the Pale Oak
Beauty)*, all seen only in 1969. Other new records for this part of
South Essex were single examples of Cossus cossus L. (the Goat Moth),
Hydriomena coerulata F. (the May Highflyer), Epione repandaria Hufn.
(the Bordered Beauty), Horisme vitalbata Schiff. (the Small Waved
Umber), Pseudoterpna pruinata Hufn. (the Grass Emerald) with a number
of Colostygia didymata L. (the Small Twin-spot Carpet), Apocheima
hispidaria Schiff. (the Small Brindled Beauty) and Arenostola pygmina
Haworth (the Small Wainscot).

The reappearance of some less common species was most heartening.
Among these were Hadena compta Schiff. (the Varied Coronet), Leucania
obsoleta Hiibn. (the Obscure Wainscot), Nonagria dissoluta Treits. (the
Brown-veined Wainscot), Trichiura crataegi L. (the Pale Oak Eggar),
Lasiocampa quercus L. (the Oak Eggar) and Saturnia pavonia L. (the Em¬
peror Moth). Mr. Grimwood mentions that species which have recently
shown signs of being commoner in his district include Amathes glareosa
Esp. (the Autumnal Rustic), Griposia aprilina L. (the Merveille-du-Jour),
Lygephila pastinum Treits. (the Blackneck), Sterrha vulpinaria H.-S.

88

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, 1 970

(the Least Carpet), Bapta distinctcitci H.-S. (the Sloe Carpet), Plagisdo
dolabraria L. (the Scorch-wing) and Apeira syringaria L. (the Lilac
Beauty). Among the butterflies there, Brimstones were particularly
common in 1969 as were the Commas, Red Admirals, and Celastrina
argiolus L. (the Holly Blue), but Poravge oegeria L. (the Speckled Wood)
has not been seen since 1967.

There do not appear to be any significant records for North Essex
(El. 19).

For Kent (K.16), though there are fewer records than usual, none-
the less several are quite outstanding and pride of place must go to Plasia
accenti fey a Lefebvre* taken in September 1969 near the Area boundary
at Halsted by Mr. Terry Dillon, as already mentioned in the introduction
This insect new to Great Britain consistutes a major entomological event
and addition to the London list. Hardly less spectacular was Mr. C. G.
Bruce’s capture at Lee of Leucania unipimcta Haworth (the White Speck
Wainscot)* in October 1968, new to K.16. In August 1969 Leucania
albipuncta Schiff. (the White-point Wainscot and Cosymbia puppillaria
Hiibn. (Blair’s Mocha) in October 1969 are only the second records of
each of these two insects for K.16.

Mr. D. O’Keefe who lives at Bexley lists 1 1 specimens of N. obstipata F.
(the Gem) there in the autumn of 1969. Mr. Chalmers Hunt also took
an example of this little migrant in that area. In July 1969 Mr. O’Keefe
took Hadena compta Schiff. (the Varied Coronet) which has only recently
colonised this part of Kent. He mentions that larvae of Aporophyla
lutulenta Schiff. (the Deep Brown Dart) were especially common round
Bexley in 1969, in the summer of which Mr. B. W. West took an example
near Dartford of Parascotia fuliginaria L. (the Waved Black) which
apparently has not been seen in this V.-C. area since the beginning of the
century. Reference has already been made to the Death's Head Hawk-
moth seen in Dartford in September 1968.

For Surrey (S.17) by far the most notable event was the reappearance
in July 1969 of Apatura iris L. (the Purple Emperor) on Bookham Com¬
mon where it had apparently not been seen since the early 1950’s. Besides
the male which Dr. G. Beven had the amazing good fortune to photograph
while feeding on horse manure on July 5, at least two others were sighted,
one on the 13 of that month and the other in early August on the Common.

Mr. G. H. Gush has once more sent in some interesting records for
the Thorpe and Wey bridge districts in 1969. The finding of a specimen
of Strymonidia w-album Knoch. (the White-letter Hairstreak) near
Thorpe adds a new locality for this attractive little butterfly which has
become very scarce of late in S.17. He also had several sightings of
Thecla quercus L. (the Purple Hairstreak) which is none too common in
that part of Surrey. Other noteworthy observations for Thorpe in¬
cluded three Limenitis Camilla L. (the White Admiral), another far from
numerous butterfly in north-west Surrey. At least two dozen Painted
Ladies were seen during July and August, but what was most remarkable
was the number of Colias croceus Fourc. (the Clouded Yellow) appearing
at Thorpe with quite 50 records and no less than 23 noted on August 16
especially as this great migrant had not been reported as plentiful in 1969.
The Peacocks, Small Tortoiseshells and Commas were abundant in the
area with a good showing of the Red Admiral seen migrating steadily in a
south-eastern direction in October and even at the start of November.
Meadow Browns, Gatekeepers and Ringlets were in hundreds there in

MACROLEPIDOPTERA OF THE LONDON AREA

89

high summer, while a few Plebeius argus L. (the Silver-studded Blue)
were flying at St. George's Hill at Weybridge.

Among the large moths Mr. Gush records Mimas tiliae L. (the Lime
Hawk) at Weybridge with Sphinx ligustri L. (the Privet Hawk) and a male
Saturnia pavonia L. (the Emperor Moth) at Thorpe on May 11. He also
mentions an Acherontia atropos L. (the Death's Head) at Walton-on-
Thames on July reported by Mr. B. P. Barker which makes a second
specimen of this famous insect for S.17 what with Mr. W. Lockyer's
specimen at Norbury on October 14, 1969, already referred to.

For the Wimbledon district Professor J. V. Dacie again returns some
very noteworthy records. In 1968 he took in his trap Cybosia mesomelia
L. (the Four-spotted Footman), not observed in that region since early
in the century, also the tiny Rivula serieealis Scop, (the Straw-Dot), not
recorded for Wimbledon. In 1969 several species reappeared of which
only single examples had been seen before. These included Atethmia
xerampelina Esp. (the Centre-barred Sallow), Rhizedra lutosa Hiibn.
(the Large Wainscot), Ennomos quercinaria Hufn. (the August Thorn)
and Nycterosea obstipata E. (the Gem) while Mr. Philip Bowman reports
Euschesis interjecta Hiibn. (the Least Yellow Underwing) and Pinsia
festucae L. (the Gold-spot), all seldom seen in the Wimbledon area from
earlier records.

From the Reigate region Mr. D. Trembath reports the appearance
of Apatele alni L. (the Alder Moth) both in 1968 and 1969, a species only
once noted previously from this part of S.17. Lygephila pastiumn Treits.
(the Blackneck), seen in 1968, is another uncommon insect in the area as
was Abraxas sylvata L. (the Clouded Magpie) seen in July 1969. Achlya
flavicornis L. (the Yellow Horned) is a futher apparently uncommon
species in the district.

Nearer the centre of London Mr. S'. Wakely has done a lot of light¬
trapping at his home in Camberwell where he records a large number of
insects for both years. During August and September 1968 he reports
several species not often seen in such a built-up region. These included
Scotogramma trifolii Hufn. (the Nutmeg), Hadena rivularis F. (the Cam¬
pion), H. bier ur is Hufn. (the Lychnis), Leucania conigera Schiff. (the Brown¬
line Bright-eye), while in August and October 1969 Thera obeliscata Hiibn.
(the Grey Pine Carpet), Denteronomos fuscantaria Haworth (the Dusky
Thorn), Eupithecia linariata Schiff. (the Toadflax Pug) and Eupithecia
succenturiata L. (the Bordered Pug).

Finally for Bucks. (B.24) Sir Eric Ansorge has had a specimen of
N. obstipata F. (the Gem)*, apparently new to the V.-C. area, and an
example of Lithophane semibrunnea Haworth (the Tawny pinion), also in
October 1969, quite a rarity for B.24. Discoloxia blomeri Curtis (Blomer’s
Rivulet had not been seen in that part of the V.-C. since 1887. Other
infrequent visitors to Chalfont St. Peter were Edema sororcula Hufn.
(the Orange Footman) and Rhizedra lutosa Hiibn. (the Large Wainscot),
all observed in 1969.

To summarise the total species of the Macrolepidoptera recorded for
the London Area to the end of 1969 reaches 728 species out of a total of
934 recognised species for the British Isles comprising these groups of the
Lepidoptera. The overall percentage for the Area is therefore re¬
maining at 77-9%, the same as it was at the end of 1967.

90

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Ladybird Survey — Second Report

By D. G. Hall

IN 1968 the London Naturalist published details of a survey being under¬
taken by the Entomological Section into the status of six common
species of ladybirds in the London Area. Briefly, six species listed in
Table I are being studied in relation to locality, seasonal distribution and
habitat. The first year’s results, published last year (Hall, 1969), revealed
a lack of records of the 7-spot and scarcity of ladybirds generally. It was
decided, therefore, to continue the survey a second year in order to com¬
pare the results with the first.

Table I

Records of Coccinellidae

1968

1969

No.

No.

Adalia bipunctata L.

517

372

Coccinella 7-punctata L.

7

128

Adalia 10-punctata L.

12

19

Coccinella 11-punctata L.

3

6

Propylea 14-punctata L.

13

20

Thea 22-punctata L.

12

15

It should be noted that apart from the increase in the number of records
of Coccinella 7 -punctata, the totals for each species in 1969 are of the same
order of magnitude as for 1968. In addition to these records, Mr. and
Mrs. Strangeman found 227 Coccinella 7-punctata in one afternoon on
Box Hill which is just outside the Society’s Area.

As in the previous year very little can be said about the 10, 11, 14 and
22-spot ladybirds as even in two years the numbers recorded have not yet
reached 50 for any one species.

Brian Benham (Benham, 1969) remarked on the few records of
Coccinella 11-punctata inland. It has certainly been the least recorded
species in this survey and because of this details of each record are set out
in Table II.

TABLE II

Records of Coccinella 11-punctata L.

Date

Place Locality

Habitat

April 2, 1968

Isleworth

In garden

June 3, 1968

Kingsbury

On Anthemis sp.

July 19, 1968

Isleworth

On Till a platyphyllos

April 4, 1969

Cuffley

On ground

April 30. 1969

New Malden

On Station platform

July 26, 1969

Cheshunt

On clothes line

August 10, 1969

Cheshunt

On Asparagus

August 30, 1969

Ripple Level

Thameside marshes,
Essex

September 11, 1969

Barnes Common

On Artemesia vulgaris

During the year Eastop and Pope (Eastop and Pope, 1969) published
the results of six years work on ladybirds recorded at Kew. One of their
tables sets out the numbers recorded during each month of the year.

LADYBIRD SURVEY — SECOND REPORT

91

Only a sufficient number of records of Adalia hipunctata were received in
this survey to justify a similar distribution table (see Table III).

TABLE III

Monthly records of Adalia bi punctata L.

Year

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Total

1968

—

_

129

40

121

185

70

4

2

3

1

555

1969

—

2

3

30

56

116

120

17

36

7

—

2

369

Total

-

2

132

50

177

301

190

21

38

10

1

2

915

Eastop &

Pope

1963-68

-

-

11

61

263

569

464

132

49

6

-

-

1555

No doubt the records for November to February in the Society’s
survey relate to hibernating species. From the Table it will be observed
that the Society’s records bear comparison with Eastop and Pope. It
should be remarked that the figures in the Society’s survey include records
from schools that have taken part. In consequence no records have been
received after mid-July from this source. Furthermore, Eastop and Pope
went on to record half yearly totals. From this they observed that there
seemed to be alternate early and late ladybird years. Their figures are
set out in Table IV for the period 1963-1968 and the Society’s results added
for 1969.

TABLE IV

Half-yearly records of Adalia bipunctata L.

Year

Jan. -June

July-Dee.

1963

47

48

1964

147

88

1965

50

202

1966

194

55

1967

84

152

1968

282

86

1969

187

182

Bearing in mind the non-receipt of records from schools who had been
actively recording in June and early July the records for the Society’s
survey support this theory of alternate early and late ladybird years.
Too much must not be read into these figures, however, as it will be
noticed that the peak period for Adalia bipunctata is June or July anyway
(see Table III). Eastop and Pope observed from their analysis that there
was a month’s difference in the period by which half the annual numbers
were recorded.

Records for Adalia bipunctata were received from a further 42 monads
making 95 out of a possible 2,765. There is still a long way to go before
any observations can be made in respect to distribution. Records from
Essex, Surrey and Kent would be particularly useful.

Coccinella 7-punctata L., generally regarded as common, calls for more
research. Although 128 records were received last year, Eastop and Pope
only found 15 at Kew in six years. Plants upon which the species were
recorded by members are set out in Table V.

92

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

TABLE V

Plant associated with Coccinella 1 -punctata L.

Plant

No.

Artemesia vulgaris

48

Cirsium spp.

15

Heracleum sphondylium

6

Achillea millefolium

5

Urtica dioica

3

Others

21

In view of the possible cycle in occurrence of Adalia bipunctata and the
possibility of obtaining further information on the 7- and 1 1 -spot ladybirds
the ladybird survey will continue for a further two years.

I thank all members who have contributed records and so made this
report possible.

For those who wish to participate in this and future years, aids to the
identification of the species under review, and recording sheets may be
obtained from my address, 7 Sutherland Avenue, Cuffley, Herts. It
should be stressed that no detailed understanding of the subject is required
and all members, whether entomologists or not, are invited to send in
records.

LIST OF RECORDERS

J. Arkell, Dr. G. Beven, P. Charlton, D. Dunn, Mrs. M. C. Foster,
Miss R. Grubb, R. W. Hall, Mrs. F. N. Harris, Mrs. J. Hayes, P. C.
Holland, Miss B. Johnson (Green School for Girls), H. J. Killick, A. E. Le
Gros, D. A. Lilliman, Mrs. J. Small, Mr. and Mrs. P. J. Strangeman,
Miss D. M. Trevaskis, Miss D. E. Woods.

REFERENCES

- - — Survey of Ladybirds occurring in the London Area. Lond. Nat., 47, 104.

BENHAM, BRIAN R., 1969. Coccinella 1 1 -punctata at Feltham, Middlesex. Entomologist,
102, 189.

EASTOP, V. F. and POPE, R. D., 1966. Notes on the Ecology and Phenology of some British
Coccinellidae. Entomologist, 99, 287-289.

- -, 1969. Notes on the Biology of some British Coccinellidae. Entomologist, 102, 162-164.

HALL, D. G., 1969. Ladybird Survey — First Report. Lond. Nat., 48, 124-125.

SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON

93

Survey of Bookham Common

TWENTY-EIGHTH YEAR
Progress Report for 1969

General. (G. Beven).

One of our most distinguished members, Mr. Leonard Parmenter, died
during March 1969. In 1941, when secretary of the Ecology section, he
was largely responsible for the inauguration of the survey, and he continued
to take a great interest in it, making regular visits for some twenty years.
He made a special study of the Diptera, on which he published a series of
papers. Together with Montague Niblett he listed over 1,200 species of
two-winged flies from the Common, more than from any other comparable
area of the country! Even after his retirement to the New Forest he re¬
tained his interest in the Survey and was always ready to help with entom¬
ological problems. He will be greatly missed.

Mr. Parmenter’s collection of Diptera (about 30,000 pinned specimens
and also a very fine collection of leaf mines and his notebooks) has been
presented to the department of Entomology, British Museum (Natural
History) where his index of the Diptera of Bookham Common has also
been deposited. A species of Pipunculidae Diptera new to science has
been named after him Chalarus pciramenteri Coe and has been found in
Scotland (Dumbarton), Westmorland, Cheshire, Kent and Surrey. Two
of the specimens were collected by L. Parmenter; 1$ Bookham, Surrey
June 26, 1960, and 1 § Sevenoaks, Kent July 4, 1965. The species was
described by Coe, R. L., 1966. “Some British species of Chalarus and
Verrallia (Diptera: Pipunculidae). ’’ Proc. R. ent. Soc. Lond. (B). 35,

149-160.

Several more books and identification keys have been kindly given to
the Research Centre’s Library by A. E. Le Gros, who has also presented
a B.D.H. pH meter.

A Nature Trail is to be organised for July 18-19, 1970, to show the
structure of the oakwood and the spread of scrub and woodland on to the
grassland. It will also include a visit to the Research Hut and the Isle of
Wight pond.

On the whole the summer was warm and rather dry, the rainfall, June
to October, being only 68 % of the average. The period September-October
was the driest such period since 1752, and October the warmest for over
100 years. The rainfall for the whole year however was 21 inches, 90%
of average (1916-1950) (London, St. James).

The Carnegie Scheme. (H. A. Sandford).

The Carnegie United Kingdom Trust is helping to finance the Society’s
activities on Bookham Common. The grant of £280 is for a survey of the
vegetation, soils and fresh waters and for their correlation. The Society
has agreed to contribute up to £200 towards the cost of further equipment
and expenses.

The first stage has involved a revision of C. P. Castell’s topographical
map which has been the basis of work on the Common since 1942, the
production of a detailed schedule of work and the purchase of equipment.

The main task now awaits us. There is an urgent need for more help

94

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

from members of the Society in this interesting project. No previous ex¬
perience is needed, and anyone can take advantage of this opportunity to
learn some modern survey techniques. Please join us at Bookham
Common, or write to the Director, H. A. Sandford, Dept, of Geography,
College of St. Mark and St. John, King’s Road, S.W.10.

Vegetation

Revision of the Flora (Ella M. Hillman).

Recording sheets have been prepared on which observers can record in
which sections of the Common certain selected plants occur and it is prop¬
osed to examine these records to see if they give an indication of changes
which have taken place since the flora of Bookham Common was compiled
for the survey in 1953 {Loud. Nat. 1954. 33, 25-47). The recording has
proceeded steadily, through the efforts mainly of Miss J. Stoddart and Dr.
A. S. Thorley, but lack of a sufficient number of botanists has meant that
the data does not accumulate fast enough for an analysis to be begun yet.

A complete card index of punched cards for all the plants in the 1953
flora has been made, and by manual operation all species occurring in a
given area or group of areas can quickly be extracted for purposes of an¬
alysis. Further data can be added to the cards, and this will be done when
experience shows what is likely to be useful.

Notes on the Bracken and Scrub of the Plains in 1964. (C. P. Castell).

The distribution of Bracken and scrub in 1953 was shown by A. W.
Jones (1954) in his vegetation map of Bookham Common.

At the suggestion of the writer, the bracken areas of the Plains were
re-surveyed in 1964 by Mr. F. C. Reeves, who also made notes on the
spread of scrub and prepared a sketch-map. Although it has not been
found possible to prepare a map suitable for publication, a short account
of the position in 1964 might be found useful for comparison with 1953 and
the present time. This account is based on notes and the sketch map made
by Mr. Reeves and, although written in the present tense, applies only to
the position in 1964. This 1964 survey has shown that throughout the
peroid 1953 to 1964 there has been some increase in bracken and a consid¬
erable increase in scrub in all the plains.

Eastern Plain

This is almost totally covered with bracken. Castell and Jones (1958)
stated that scrub appeared to be more strongly developed among the
bracken than in the Molinietum; this is no longer so. Birches, with some
aspens and willows, are spreading over the whole of the plain and only a
small area of approximately two acres remains clear. The Molinietum
immediately west of Tunnel Path is now covered with scrub, largely haw¬
thorn ( Crataegus monogyna ); it is notable that this is the only part of East¬
ern Plain where hawthorn has developed. This is particularly so when it
is contrasted with the adjacent Molinietum, of Jones’ map, east of Tunnel
Path which is now entirely dominated by bracken with some birch and very
little hawthorn. Ling ( Calluna vulgaris) was widely distributed in Eastern
Plain, especially in the Molinietum (Castell and Jones, 1958). E. W.
Groves (1959) stated that, after several fires in 1956 and 1957, none sur¬
vived in 1958. However, Ling still survives in several places, in small
quantities.

SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON

95

Central Plain

This region is divided into two parts by the development of a thick belt
of scrub, largely blackthorn, with many hawthorns, some small oaks and
roses, running in a N.W. — S.E. direction. In the southern part of this area
(area S of Jones), encroaching blackthorn, bramble and hawthorn have
reduced the area of bracken, young oaks are growing up amongst and be¬
yond the bracken and it is evident that South-east Wood is spreading to¬
wards Central Ditch. This is the area cleared by the Council for Nature's
Conservation Corps during 1960-1962 and it was the policy of the Corps
to leave young trees, especially oaks, when clearing the scrub. A census
of oaks taken within this area of three acres showed, in December 1964, the
following: 11 over 12 ft. high: 32, 6-12 ft.; 3, 3-6 ft. and 11, 1-3 ft. This
makes an interesting contrast with 11 acres of the S.W. part of Central
Plain (Area R), where, in 1959 (Castell, 1960) there were only 14 oaks, 6
over 8 ft. high. Numerous hawthorn, rose and blackthorn seedlings have
appeared in the area cleared by the Corps, but, so far, these do not exceed
2 ft. in height.

A small strip of bracken north of the railway line in area S has been
replaced by hawthorn, oak and rose, which have spread west of Central
Ditch; Rose-bay willow-herb ( Chamaenerion angusti folium) is locally
abundant.

The northern part of area S is now almost totally covered with haw¬
thorn and bracken. Oaks from South-east Wood and from the small wood
to the N.W. have spread into the area, with many birches from Eastern
Plain.

Bayfield Plain

North of the road bracken has increased slightly. ITawthorn scrub is
so thick immediately to the east of the bracken that it is difficult to define
the bracken boundary. Elsewhere oaks predominate among the bracken
(in January 1965 there were 42 over 12 ft. high) with some willow and birch.
Hawthorn has not developed to any great extent, though there are scat¬
tered bushes. Rose-bay willow herb is abundant in two places.

Isle of Wight and Western Plains

This area shows the greatest change, with a great increase in scrub and
bracken; dense, almost impenetrable, thickets have grown up in several
places. It is interesting to note that Western Ditch, Bookham Stream, and
in places, footpaths and horserides have been very effective in preventing
further encroachment. Oaks are spreading out from Hill House Wood and
the gradual natural development of the plains into oakwood can be seen
taking place.

Salisbury (1961) has described bracken as “one of the worst weeds of
rough pasture”. Very few plants will co-exist with bracken and Beven
(1964) noted that very few birds are to be found amongst it. At Bookham
it is becoming a more serious problem year by year. The scrub is an even
more difficult problem. The efforts of the Conservation Corps and the
staff of the National Trust are having some effect in parts of the common.
Without this work the outlook would be even more hopeless.

references

SEVEN, G., 1964. The Feeding Sites of Birds in Grassland with Thick Scrub. Lond. Nat., 43,
86-109.

96

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

CASTELL, C. P., I960. Survey of Bookham Common. Progress Report; A Further Note on
the Increase of Scrub Vegetation. Lond. Nat., 39, 64.

CASTELL, C. P. and JONES, A. W., 1958. Notes on the Vegetation of Eastern Plain. Lond.
Nat., 37, 58-65.

GROVES, E. W., 1959. A Note on the Heather and Bracken on Eastern Plain, Bookham Common.
Lond. Nat., 38, 60-61.

JONES, A. W., 1954. The Flora of Bookham Common. Lond. Nat., 33, 25-47.

SALISBURY, E. J., 1961. Weeds and Aliens. Collins, London. (New Naturalist Series), 199.

(In 1968 the National Trust acquired a Bush Hog Rotary Cutter and
heavy tractor, and further control of the grassland, bracken and scrub
became possible. Some of the effects of this control are described below.
G.B.).

Notes on the Vegetation of the Plains after cutting grass and Bracken in 1969
(Ella M. Hillman).

Eastern Plain

In the 1950s the vegetation of this area was typical of wet heathland,
the dominant plant being Molinia caerulea. The soil here is more sandy
and more acid than on the rest of the Common. C. P. Castell and A. W.
Jones {Lond. Nat., 1958, 37i 58-65) have recorded how the Plain was grad¬
ually invaded by Betula pendula (Birch), Populus tremula (Aspen), and
Pteridium aquilinum (Bracken). In 1968 Bracken covered most of this
area, and as it grew to a height of six feet or more the heathland vegetation,
being deprived of light, could not survive, and the Molinietum was re¬
duced to a very small area. Very few specimens of Genista anglica (Petty
Whin), U/ex minor (Dwarf Gorse), Galium saxatile (Heath Bedstraw),
Potentilla erecta (Tormentil), and Lotus corniculatus (Birdsfoot Trefoil)
were to be found only beside the paths where light could penetrate. Ten
feet from a path, within the Bracken, all other vegetation was absent except
for sparse Lonicera periclymenum (Honeysuckle).

In the spring and summer of 1969 Mr. E. F. Youngman, the keeper of
the Common, in consultation with the survey team, cut the Bracken down
by machine four times during the season, as an experiment in its control.
At the end of the summer the new growth of Bracken was only about six to
nine inches high in contrast to the unreaped stretches round the edge of the
Plain, which reached a height of eight feet. The new Bracken was over¬
topped by Molinia which spread with great rapidity into those areas which
had become devoid of almost all plant life except Bracken, and became
once more the dominant plant, co-dominant with the new Bracken shoots.
As the last cutting took place in August, the Molinia stands a good chance
of surviving it, its flowering stems being sent up in September. Hydro-
cotyle vulgaris rapidly colonised ground left bare by the cutting of the
Bracken in the wetter areas on the South-western part of the Plain. Much
of the invading Birch and Aspen has also been cut down in an attempt to
preserve the interesting Heath flora.

Bayfield Plain

The keeper has also cleared and widened most of the paths on all the
plains and scrub areas, and on Central and Bayfield Plains he has cut down
some of the coarse tufts of Deschampsia caespitosa , which dominates the
ground vegetation on the Plains until invaded by Hawthorn {Crataegus
monogyna). The result of this cutting was spectacular. One area became
a Juncetum dominated mainly by Juncus conglomerate (but other species

SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON

97

of Juncus were also present), and this happened as a result of cuttings in
October 1968 and May 1969. The Juncetum showed a profusion of
flowering stems in July 1969. It was then reaped in late July, and on
August 3 one could find only a few flowers or fruits among the tufts of
Juncus. By September 14, the Juncus had produced many more flowers,
some of which were of Juncus ejfusus , which is a later flowering species, but
overlapping in time with J. conglomeratus. The Deschampsia, on the
other hand, though its tufts persisted, sent up no more flowering stems.
There was thus a marked difference in appearance between the cut areas of
Deschampsia and the uncut areas with their conspicuous tall dried flowering
stems.

Central Plain

Here the story of Deschampsia is the same, but its control favoured the
spread of Angelica sylvestris so that this handsome Umbellifer became
abundant and a conspicuous feature of the scene. This plant flowers from
July to September, and it would be worthwhile to study all these three
Plains in 1970 to see whether there is any indication that this year’s (1969)
cuttings favour the spread of later-flowering species by, perhaps, mowing
down others before these have time to seed. There is, of course, vegetative
reproduction to be reckoned with.

It would seem that management of the Common with the controlled
use of the rotary cutter, of which the prime purpose is to halt the progress
towards a “jungle”, and so to improve the amenities for the general public,
will also stave off uniformity in the vegetation and create small regions
where plants other than Deschampsia and Pteridium can flourish.

Coelenterata — Hydroids (A. E. Le Gros)

Further to the note ( Lond . Nat., 1969. 48, 128) recording three species
of Hydra for the Common, a fourth species, Hydra vulgaris Pallas was
found among large numbers of “brown” Hydra present in Sheepbell pond
on October 18, 1969.

Turbellaria — Freshwater Triclads (A. E. Le Gros)

To the two species of Triclads previously mentioned {Lond. Nat., 1968.
47, 90) may be added (1) Polycelis nigra (OFM), abundant in Central ditch
round the lower part of plants growing in the mud, (2) Polycelis tenuis
Ijima found in I.O.W. pond.

Nematoda

(determined by J. W. Coles)

Family MONHYSTERIDAE

Monhystera paludicola de Man. Amongst algae, Isle of Wight pond, June
9, 1968.

Family CHROMADORIDAE

Chromadorita leuckarti de Man. In surface mud and debris of stream
leading to Isle of Wight pond, adjacent to road, March 9, 1969.
NOTE: This species was listed incorrectly as Neochromadora izhorica
(Filipjev) in the Bookham Common Progress Report for 1968 {Lond.
Nat., 1969. 48, 128-129) and both records given (Isle of Wight pond, May
1958 and the one from Scotland, March, 1960) refer to Chromadorita
leuckarti.

98

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Rotifera

(determined by J. W. Coles)

Synchaeto pectinata Ehrenberg. Very abundant in Isle of Wight pond,

August II, 1968.

HIRUDINEA— LEECHES (G. Beven).

A. E. Le Gros has contributed the following records : —

Theromyzon tessulatum (OFM) found in 1964 I.O.W. pond. A parasite
of waterfowl.

Hemiclepsis marginata (OFM) found in 1967 I.O.W. pond. A fish para¬
site which also probably attacks tadpoles.

Glossiphonia complanata (L) found in 1967 Lower Eastern pond. Preys
on water snails.

Helobdellastagnalis (L) Frequent I.O.W. and L.E. ponds 1968-9. Predator
on small invertebrates. This species was also present in I.O.W. pond
July 29, 1967 (J. W. Coles, Lond. Nat., 1968. 47, 90) and was also col¬
lected at a Quekett Club meeting on August 9, 1969 from Lower Eastern
pond (determined by E. G. Easton).

Three other species have been previously recorded from the Common : —

Haemopsis sanguisuga (L) Horse Leech, collected by C. J. F. Bensley from
I.O.W. pond on April 19, 1946.

Hirudo medicinalis (L) Medicinal Leech. April 2, 1938 from Bookham pond
(? I.O.W. pond) ( Proc . S. Lond. Ent. Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1938-39, 38-9).

Erpobdella testacea (Savigny) July 29, 1967 I.O.W. pond (J. W. Coles,
Lond. Nat., 1968. 47, 90).

Crustacea

(determined by W. A. Smith)

Branchiura

Argulus foliaceus (L) Found free in Isle of Wight pond, August 9, 1969
(collected by Miss Mary E. H. Stevens).

Arachnida (A. E. Le Gros)

The British Arachnological Society during a field week in Surrey in
1968, visited Bookham Common on August 24. A report by our member
D. R. Nellist (Bull. Brit. Arach. Soc., 1969, 1, 55-60) notes that the B.A.S.
found 67 species of spiders and 5 species of Harvestmen. Of the spiders
11 species were recorded from the Common for the first time, bringing the
known total to 182. A revised account of the Bookham Arachnids is
under preparation.

Insecta— Psocoptera (A. E. Le Gros)

C. N. Smithers, a specialist on the Psocoptera or Book Lice, visited the
Common on June 15, 1968 and collected four species Caecilius flavidus
(Steph), Graplosocus cruciatus (L), Ectopsocus briggsi McLach and
Mesopsocus immunis (Steph) (Ent mon Mag., 1969, 105, 54). As far as I
can trace these are the first to be recorded from Bookham.

Over the last four years I have met with Loensia fasciata (Fab),
Psococerastis gibbosa (Sulz), Elipsocus hyalinua (Steph) and Ectopsocus
briggsi McLach when beating oak in June and July. There is no recent
British monograph on the group but I have found A. BadonneFs Psoco-
pteres (Faune de France, No. 42) describes nearly all the species likely to
be met with in our woods. E. briggsi hibernates as an adult and is fre-

SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON

99

quently met with in winter under bark and in old galls of Biorrhiza pallida
and Andricus kollari. It is an easy species to rear in the laboratory.

Insecta — Lepideroptera (G. Beven)

Purple Emperor Butterfly Apatura iris. A male was watched feeding
on horse’s dung on a footpath by Hill House Wood (466) on July 5, 1969
(G.B.). A male was again seen momentarily on the ground near Central
Ditch (8 1 5) on July 1 3, 1 969 (G.B.) and a male was seen on coconut matting
on the ground in her garden (449) by Mrs D. Macer-Wright in the first week
of August. Previous records of Purple Emperors at Bookham are (1) $
August 11, 1947 (C. G. M. de Worms, Loud. Nat., 1950. 29, 67) and (2)
Pair in cop, July 7, 1952 observed by R. M. Craske (C. G. M. de Worms,
Lond. Nat., 1959. 38, 36). White Admiral Butterflies Limenitis Camilla
were seen in fair numbers during July and early August.

HYMENOPTERA— Wasps (P. W. E. Currie)

RECORDS OF WASPS

Embolema ruddii Westwood.
Bethylus cephalotes (Forster).
Tiphia femorata Fabr.

T. minuta van der Linden.

Myrmosa atra Panz.

Priocnemis perturbator (M. Flarris).
Deuteragenia hircana (Fabr.).

D. intermedia (Dahlbom).

Odynerus laevipes (Shuckard).

Ancistrocerus callosus (C. G. Thomson).

A. trimarginatus (Zett.

Symmorphus sinuatissimus Richards.
Vespa crabro (L).

Astata boops (Schr.).

Trypoxylon figulits (L).

T. clavicerum (Lep.).

Pemphredon lugubris (Fabr.).

Cemonus shuckardi (Morawitz).

C. wesmaeli (Morawitz).

Passaloecus insignis (van der Linden).

P. gracilis (Curtis).

Mimesa shuckardi (Wesmael).

Coelocrabro leucostomoides (R chards).

C. cetratus (Shuckard).

C. ambiguus (Dahlbom).

C. leucostomus (L).

Ablepharipus podagricus (van der Linden).

Blepharipus confusus (Schulz).
Clytochrysus planifrons (C. G. Thomson).

C. cavifrons (C. G. Thomson).

C. chrysostomus (Lep. & Br.).

April 8, 1951, 9 E. Hollow, shaken from grass tuft.
9 April 16, 1950, MR 582, swept from grass,
o 299 August 5, 1950, at flowers of Torilis japonica
(Houtt).

33 June 4, 1949, August 5, 1950, (2), August 13,
1950 at flowers of T. japonica and Angelica
sylvestris (L).

33 June 26, 1949, August 5, 1950, 4 99 August 27,
1950, at flowers of T. japonica etc.

$9 April 24 and June 6, 1949.

9 June 1949, 2 33 299 June 4, 1949 MR 5132 at
ciccid osk tree

9 June 5, 1949 MR 8483 with spider prey at hole
in old poplar stump.

o9 bred 25, June 28, 1949, from bramble stems.
2 33 5, June 6, 1949. 2 06 bred 4, June 6, 1950,

from bramble stems.

299 May 1 and June 12, 1949, 3o<J 399 August 14,

1949, 9 August 5, 1950, mostly at holes in dead
wood.

9 June 26. 1949.

9 June 12, 1949, <?9 June 11, 1940.

Dormant 9 under bark of dead ash tree April 8,

1950, 9 9 not uncommon at flux of oak trees in
the northern parts of the woods.

9 August 27, 1950, MR 426.

9 June 5, 1949, MR 8483, poplar stump,
o June 11, 1950.

9 May 22, 1949, August 13, 1950.

33 May 22 and June 12, 1949, on currant leaves.
Central Plain.

o June 11, 1950 Central Plain on black currant
Ribes nigrum (L).

3 June 4, 1949, 9 August 5, 1950.
o June 26, 1949, 99 June 11 and August 13, 1950,
in clearings in the woods.

9 June 26, 1949, MR 426, entering hole.

9 October 10, 1948, 9 June 11, 1950, on dead wood.
2 33Q May 29, 1949, MR 628 at dead oak.

9 June 11, 1950.

9 August 14, 1949.

2 99 June 6, 1949, 9 June 26, 1949, in woodland,
o August 5, 1 950, MR 869, parsnip flowers Pastinaca
Sativa (L). 2 99 June 11, 1950, August 13, 1950.
9 August 13, 1950, MR 297, at flux of oak.

9 August 5, 1950, at Angelica flowers, Bayfield
Plain.

9 August 28 1949, 5 33 from pupae in dead birch,
Eastern Plain, em. June 11, 1950 also 1 Eustal-
omyia histrio Zett. (Dipt., Muscidae), det. L.
Parmenter.

o June 5, 1949, 9 July 24 1949, 3 August 28, 1949

100

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Solenius rubicola (Dufour & Perris).

S. continuus (Fabr.).

Rhopalum clavipes (L).

Lindenius albilabris (Fabr.).

L. panzeri (van der L.).

Nysson spinosus (Forster).

N. trimaculatus (Rossi).

Gorytes mystaceus (L).

Hoplisus quadrifasciatus (Fabr.).

Cerceris rybyensis (L).

33 June 5, 1949, June 11, 1950, August 5, 1950, $
June 11, 1950.

33 June 4 and 5, 1949, 9 June 12, 1949, 3 33, 2 99
August 28, 1949.

9 June 12, 1949.

$ June 26, 1949, 3 33, 5 99 June 11, 1950, MR 426,
at Andrena colony. 9 August 5, 1950.

2 99 August 14, 1949, High Point, from several
entering a single hole in the ground.

o<J9 June 5, 1949, 9 June 12, 1949, 2 33 June 11,
1950.

3 May 22, 1949.

99 June 12 and 26, 1949, June 11, 1950, 3 May 14,
1950.

9 August 5, 1950, MR 815, are flowers of T.
japonica.

2 99 August 14, 1949, 9 August 5, 1950, at holes
in paths at High Point and Andrena colony at
MR 426.

Note: the nomenclature used in this list follows that in Kloet and Hincks, Checklist of British

Insects (1945). MR = Map Reference.

Insect Visitors to Flowers (A. E. Le Gros)

On four visits to Bookham in August-September 1969 a note was made
of the insects visiting the white flowers of the larger bindweed Calystegia
sepium (L) in a colony on the Central Plain. Only the insects that worked
their way down into the heart of the flowers to reach the glandular hairs
were recorded. The few casuals that used the flowers as resting or sunning
places were ignored. Growing about the bindweed were many plants of
the sowthistle Sonchus arvensis (L) whose yellow flowers attracted not only
more species than the bindweed, but far greater numbers of individuals,
and a note was made of the insect visitors seen on August 21, and Septem¬
ber 24.

The bindweed visitors were : —

Apidae. The honeybee Apis mellifica (L) and the bumble bees Bombus
agrorum Fab, H. hortorum (L) and B. terrestris (L). Most of these were
seen on August 13, a hot sunny day, only the B. agrorum being seen later.
Diptera. The Syrphid flies Helophilus pendulus (L), Rhingia campestris
Mg, Syrphus balteatus (DeG), S. luniger Mg (one specimen) and S. ribesii
(L). Of these balteatus and ribesii were abundant and formed 90% of the
flies. 1969 was a balteatus year the resident population in Britain being
augmented by large migrations from the continent and most of them seen
at Bookham were males. Hemiptera. Anthocoris nemorum (L). Two
searching for Thrips? Lepidoptera. Simaethis fabriciana (L). This
micromoth, identified by R. W. J. Uffen, was a frequent visitor each day.

Parmenter {Loud. Nat., 1950, 29, 105 and 1954, 33, 93) reported only
three flies visiting Calystegia, Rhingia macrocephala (Flarris) ( = R . camp¬
estris Mg) at Bookham, and Platychirus peltatus Mg and Syrphus balteatus
DeG at Cripplegate. Uffen ( Lond . Nat., 1962, 41, 69) noted the moth at
Chiswick as a common visitor to bindweed flowers in daylight. I also
made a check of bindweed flowers in other localities although some of the
observations were brief — to see if the limited number of regular visitors
(i.e. social bees, a small moth and perhaps only four or five Syrphid flies)
would be found elsewhere and I think this was so. The species seen were : —
August 23, By the River Colne, Cowley, Middlesex. Syrphus balteatus
(DeG) abundant, S. ribesii (L) frequent.

September 9, Hayes Common, Kent. Syrphus ribesii (L) frequent, the
ladybird beetle Propylea 14-punctata (L) (one) and Apis mellifica (L)
(many).

SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON

101

September 10, Cowley, Middlesex. Helophilus pendulus (L) in some
numbers.

September 12, Keston Common, Kent (at pink flowers close to s.sp
pulchra ) Syrphus ribesii (L) frequent, Platychirus peltatus Mg (one) and
Simaethis fabriciana (L) (Two).

September 20, Allotments, Hither Green Railway Station, S.E. London
(on white flowers of s.sp sylvatica). Syrphus ribesii (L) abundant,
syrphid Scaeva pyrastri (L) (several), Apis mellifica (L) frequent and
Bombus muscorum (L) (one). All of these were seen also at nearby
ragwort flowers.

The yellow flowers of the sowthistle have their nectar more readily
accessible than those of the bindweed, and also allow the insects to see
approaching enemies which the bindweed flowers do not. Consequently
many feeding insects flew off, avoiding my net as I approached the flowers.
Parmenter {Loud. Nat., 1950, 29, 104) recorded the Trypetid fly Ensina
sonchi (L) and five Syrphid flies Eristalis arbustorum (L), E. tenax (L),
Scaeva pyrastri (L), Syrphus balteatus (DeG) and S. vitripennis Mg visiting
the flowers of the Corn Sowthistle at Bookham. Spending a total of
nearly four hours over the two days I was able to record the following
species : —

Apidae. Apis mellifica (L) (abundant), Bombus agrorum Fab (frequent
and a solitary bee Halictus sp (one).

Ichneumonidae. Dicaelotus sp? (one).

Lepidoptera. Aglais urticae (L) The Small Tortoiseshell (one), Simaethis
fabriciana (L) frequent.

Diptera. Muscidae. Orthellia cornicina (F) (abundant) and Phaonia
erratica Fall abundant. Hydrotaea sp (one). Mycetophilidae. Sciara
sp (one).

Syrphidae. Eristalis tenax (L) (abundant), E. arbustorum (L) (one),
E. pertinax Scop (one), Helophilus pendulus (L) frequent, H. hybridus
Loew (two), Rhingia campestris Mg several, Platychirus peltatus Mg
(one), Scaeva pyrastri (L) (one), Syrphus balteatus (DeG) abundant,
S', ribesii (L) abundant, Syritta pepens (L) (one).

One Piophilid and a Tachinid fly I was unable to name. On September
24, two very common species, the drone fly Eristalis tenax (L) and the
green muscid Orthellia cornicina F, both of which ignored the bindweed,
were seen to visit all the other flowers in its vicinity, yellow buttercups
and composites, white umbellifers and mauve Michaelmas Daisies.

Birds (G. Beven)

Oak wood {Eastern Wood )

The breeding season census was repeated in this 40 acre sample of
dense interior oakwood. The number of territories of singing males of
selected species over the last seven years was as follows : —

102

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

Starling

5

5-6

10

6

8

12

7

Nuthatch

2

5

5

5

7

5

3

Blue Tit

19

19

22

17

16

20

19

Marsh Tit

3

1

1

3

3

3

3

Chiffchaff

2

5

7

6

6

3

3

Garden Warbler

2

2

4

1

1

1

1

Mistle Thrush

1-5

2

3

2

1

1

2

Blackbird

8

10

12

11

12

11

13

Dunnock

4

5

5

4

8

6

6

Chaffinch

5-5

7

8

7

6

4

4

Great Tit

12

17

17

12

16

19

14

Coal Tit

2

5

4

3

8

6

7

Longtailed Tit

0

0

1

2

2

1

1

Willow Warbler

2-5

1-5

4

4

2

6

2

Blackcap

5

3

4

7

6

3

6

Song Thrush

4

7

7

8

10

7

7

Robin

21-5

32

37

37

42

43

44

Wren

1

5-5

11

17

25

26

24

Scrub and Grassland

The spring census of the number of territories of singing males was
again made on 96 acres of scrub and grassland in 1969. The number of
territories of selected species over the last six years was as follows : —

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

Pheasant

2

2

3

3

2

7

Wood Pigeon

1

2

4

1

1

6

Turtle Dove

5

4

3

5

3

7

Green Woodpecker

0

1

4

4

4

1

Wren

2

3

9

10

15

14

Song Thrush

8

8

7

10

9

9

Blackbird

15

8

13

17

15

15

Robin

23

23

15

21

23

23

White throat

12

17

17

22

16

11

Willow Warbler

20

14

19

27

21

26

Dunnock

11

15

13

18

12

12

Linnet

1

4

4

4

1

2

Chaffinch

18

13

13

14

9

12

Yellow Hammer

9

7

9

7

8

7

Reed Bunting

3

2

5

6

5

3

SURVEY OF BOOKHAM COMMON

103

Thus over the whole of this area the pheasants have increased and the
number of Wrens is still high. There was a 30% reduction in the White-
throat population in this habitat. Elsewhere in England there seems to
have been a 70% reduction in Whitethroats in farmland and woodland, so
that scrubland is presumably an optimal habitat. There was no corres¬
ponding reduction in Willow Warblers. During 1969 about half an acre
(of these 96 acres) was partially cleared of scrub by the National Trust,
while the long grass was cut on about fifteen acres of previously cleared
scrubland.

Unfortunately the bird census of Eastern Plain was not repeated in
1969, owing to lack of observers. However, a special lookout was kept
for the return of the Tree Pipit. It is thus of interest to report that a male
was singing on May 28, 1969, June 1, 1969 and July 13, 1969 at ref. 823/597
in the same area as last year. As already mentioned, the bracken on this
plain was cut four times during the summer, thus preventing it from becom¬
ing dominant. The situation next Spring will be watched with interest.

Other Notes on the Birds

A pair of Little Grebe spent the summer on the Isle of Wight pond and
another was present on Lower Eastern pond. Several family parties of
Mallard were seen. The Mandarin Duck Aix galericulcitci has increased
along the Mole valley in recent years, and in 1968 several were noted just
north of Bookham Common. However during January, February and
March 1969 birds were recorded for the first time on the Common, on
Lower Eastern and Isle of Wight ponds, while a flock of 13 was seen flying
over South-east Wood on March 9, 1969. Some birds remained until the
end of April, but there was no evidence of nesting. The duck were again
seen on the Common in January 1970. One pair of Kestrels was present,
and Sparrowhawks were seen in January, March, April, May and Septem¬
ber. A pair of Coot raised three young on the Isle of Wight pond. At
least one Woodcock was roding in May.

Seven Tawny Owls were heard hooting. Five of these were in the 250
acres of woodland in which in 1965 there were 4, 1966 4, 1967 3-4, and 1968
5. Pellets of a Tawny Owl found in Eastern Wood (6281) in March- April
1969 contained 2 Bank Voles, 1 Wood Mouse, 14 House Mice, and 2
Brown P.ats, suggesting that this bird was hunting near the houses at the
edge of the woodland. The number of pairs of Long-tailed Tits in the
Spring in an area of about 120 acres of grassland and scrub during 1969
was 6, including 3 nests. In 1962 the number of pairs was 6, in 1963 nil,
1964 3, 1965 4, 1966 4, 1967 6, and 1968 6. In 1969 another pair was seen
building a nest 60 or more feet up in an oak in Central Wood (548). There
were 4 Nightingales in song during the Spring, two juveniles being noted on
August 3, 1969. (Ella M. Hillman). Six Grasshopper Warblers were
heard singing. A Hawfinch was in South-East Wood on April 18, 1969,
(Robin Griffiths) and several were on Western Plain in December (Clare
Harding). In 96 acres of scrub and grass there were 6 territories of dis¬
playing male Redpolls during 1969. Previously up to 1962 there were
none, 1963 1, 1964 2, 1965 3, 1966 5, 1967 4, and 1968 4. (The pre¬
viously published estimates for 1965 and 1966 are now considered to be
too low).

Mammals The Rabbit Survey (Michael Towns)

It is hoped that members will record all their observations on rabbits

104

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

in the notebook now being kept in the Research Hut.

The aims of the rabbit survey have been divided on a long-term and
short-term basis. The long-term project has involved the mapping of the
zonation of the vegetation, in an area grazed by the rabbits, with a view to
recording the changes effected by their activities. The short-term projects
have been concerned with (1) locating the preferred habitats as regards
cover, access to feeding grounds, and vegetational formations. (2) Under¬
taking a “sweep” of the common to ascertain the frequency of the animal
on the common.

Examination of twenty-two rabbit burrows has yielded the unexpected
result that, apart from one which had galleries leading to other exits, all
the burrows have either ended blindly or have travelled simply in a straight line
to another exit. None of the burrows examined was excavated by the
rabbits below a depth of two feet from the surface, and the simple burrows
were rarely longer than four feet.

From these first tentative findings it would seem that, at least in the
areas surveyed so far, the rabbit population is primarily surface living and
the simple holes act merely as a form of temporary shelter.

MAMMAL RECORDING

Unfortunately, it has not been possible to prepare a Mammal Report
for this year’s issue of the London Naturalist. It is intended, however,
to publish in the future a series of maps, each showing the distribution of
a species in the Society’s area. In order that these maps should be as up
to date and complete as possible, members are urgently requested to send
any records to the Mammal Recorder, Ian Beames, 69 Gadeson Road,
West Ewell, Epsom, Surrey.

BADGER CORPSES

John Landells has now taken over Professor R. J. Harrison’s work in
collecting badger corpses (vide London Naturalist 48, 72). Mr. Landells
will try to collect specimens in reasonable condition, from South London
only, but cannot guarantee to do so; he can be contacted c/o London
Hospital Medical College, Turner Street, E.l (01-946 9408).

THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTIONS

Members are asked to note that the Society’s collections of Mollusca,
mammal skins, skulls and skeletons is now in the care of the new Curator,
David Warren, 76 Hazelwood Road, Bush Hill Park, Enfield, Middlesex
any request to view the collections in the pursuit of research projects
should be made to him in writing.

FLOWERS AND FIGURES

105

Flowers and Figures

Some Quantitative Aspects of the Flora of Bookham Common

By E. M. Hillman

“To me the meanest flower that blows can give
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears”

Wordsworth.

“The Flora of Bookham Common” was published by A. W. Jones
(1954), who carried out the survey with the collaboration of four expert
botanists. This account is an attempt to analyse their results with special
reference to the number and variety of species occurring in different areas
of the common. The relative abundance of species was assessed in the
original paper, and, as that is irrelevant here, no mention will be made of
that aspect of the work.

The common was divided into 20 areas “of similar size”, lettered
A to T. As the boundaries had perforce to be paths and streams, exact
equality of area w'ould have been impossible to achieve. One cannot
divide a public common into neat rectangular strips as at an experimental
research station. Nevertheless good agreement in size w'as reached,
except in the case of area L, which is considerably smaller than average
and also contains fewest species. To remove possible bias due to its
small size it has been added to the adjacent area K to form one area K-L
comparable in size with the rest. In the following discussion there are
therefore 19 areas each of about 20 acres or approximately 80,000 sq.
metres.

A few species w;ere recorded as being in one area or the adjacent area,
probably because the plants w?ere on the boundaries. In counting, such
records have been allotted \ to each area. A few species, too, were
recorded as aggregates, so that the number of species may be a little higher
than appears here, but with the large numbers involved these do not
greatly affect the results. In all, 3,180 records w'ere made of 476 species
of vascular plants.

In the map accompanying the original paper, eight main types of
vegetation are depicted, w’hich are here numbered for reference in Table I
which follows.

1. Grassland dominated by Deschampsia cciespitosci

2. Grassland dominated by Molinia caerulea

3. Bracken areas ( Pteridium aquilinum)

4. Marshy areas

5. Other open areas

6. Scrub, often Crataegus monogyna

7. Woods: dominant tree Quercus robur

8. Ponds.

The botanical names used are those which were adopted for the original
paper (for easy reference) and are from the first edition of Clapham,
Tutin and Warburg's “Flora of the British Isles”. In the following
Table I, brackets indicate that the areas covered by those types of vegeta¬
tion are small compared with the remainder.

106

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

TABLE I

(see accompanying map, Figure I)

Area

Vegetation Types
in the area

Number of species
(ignoring \ in totals)

R

1, (3), 5, (6). (7)

237

N

1, 4, 5, (6), 7. 8

230

Q

1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8

218

D

1, 3. 5, 6, 7

207

M

1, 2, 3, 5, (6), 7, 8

206

O

1. 3. 5. 6

196

s

1. 2, 3, 5, (6), 7

196

p

1. 3. 6

187

J

7

177

T

1, 2, 3, 6, 7

176

E

1, 5, 6. 7

175

A

5, 7, (8)

160

I

L 5, (6), 7

130

C

5, 7, (8)

129

K-L

7

118

B

7

116

G

(1), (6), 7

95

H

(5), 7

84

F

(1), 7

79

Total: 3,116
(less than 3,180 due to
amalgamation of areas

K and L)

The areas will now be grouped according to their adjacent geographical
positions and vegetation types. The 19 areas fall very conveniently into
six groups of three, with area N omitted as it forms a class by itself
consisting of the larger aquatic habitats with their fringes of marsh and
woodland.

TABLE II

1

2

3

4

5

6

Mean no.

Greatest

No. of

Column (5)

of species

deviation

species in

as multiple

Areas

Description

recorded

from mean

combined

of mean.

in each

as % of

area

Column (3)

mean

a

b

c

d=c/a

'FGH

Woods surrounded by
woods

86

15

126

1-47

ABC

Woods on northern
boundary adjoining

Group I-

arable land

135

18

212

1-57

IJK-L

Woods, eastern and
south-eastern parts,
adjoining gardens or

-

aquatic habitats

142

25

243

1-70

'MST

Mixed. Southern end
of scrub, plains and
fringe of wood

193

9

301

1 56

Group II

DEO

Similar, north¬
western end

193

9

301

1 56

PQR

Mixed. Mainly grass¬
land and scrub,

L

south-western side

214

13

319

1 50

Me.

in (excluding

IJK-L) 1-53 (S.D.

= 0 04)

FLOWERS AND FIGURES

107

Fig. 1. Vegetation map of Bookham Common to show the areas in relation to
the number of species of vascular plants found in each.

The difference between the mean number of species per area in the
first group, 121, and that of the second group, 200, is marked, and statis¬
tical tests (including Student’s t-test) show that it is highly significant
(probability less than 0T of 1 % that it is due to chance). Moreover, the
mean for the inner woodland area is significantly different (P<5%)
from that of the other woodland areas.

The next part of the paper investigates the question as to how the total
number of species in a combined area is related to the mean number of
species in the three component parts. For example, in combining the
three inner woodland areas F, G, H, with 79 species in F, 95 in G, 84 in H
(mean = 86), it is found, by counting, that FGH contain 126 species, which
is T47 times the mean. This has been done for all the groups, and the
results are given in Table II. (The identical results for DEO and MST
are a coincidence, not a misprint!)

108

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

The results suggest that where three neighbouring areas are alike in
the number of species they contain to the extent that the greatest deviation
is not more than one-fifth of the mean number, then the number to be
found in the combined area is about 1^ (T53) times the mean, which is
connected with the fact that the three component areas will have about
one-third (29%-38%) of their species in common. The result for the
combined area IJK-L differs significantly (P< 1 %) from the mean of the
rest, and it will be noted that this is the least homogeneous set, where the
divergence from the mean is greatest. Area J has a comparatively high
number of species, and it contains the second highest number of Book-
ham “rarities”, i.e. those species which occur in one area only. Many of
these prove to be garden weeds, and as area J is flanked by gardens it is
very probable that it was being diversified from a neglected one at the
time. (A list of species found only in area J is given as an appendix.)

Since area IJK-L does not satisfy the requirement that the number
of species in each area should not differ too widely from their mean (by
not more than 20 %) it will be omitted from the remaining discussion, which
deals with more uniform combinations of habitats. The remarkable
consistency of the results is a tribute to the thoroughness with which the
original investigation was carried out, and encouraged further inquiry
into the effect of combining the areas of each group in pairs. In this case
the number in the combined area was found on average to be T33 (S.D.
0-04) times the mean. Since the proportional increments in the number
of species found by doubling and trebling an area are as 0-33:0-53, which
is approximately equal to log 2:log 3, Figure II is drawn showing the
S

ratio 7T plotted against log n, where

S» is the (mean) number of species in the original sample

Sn is the number of species in a combination of n such areas.

Fig. 2. Graph to show the relation Sn/si with log n. Si being the mean
number of species found in one area and S n the number found in n

similar areas.

FLOWERS AND FIGURES

109

This is found to be linear for values of n from 1 to 3 for the five com-

Sn

binations examined, and the equation connecting Sn and n is = 1 + k log n

•31

0-33 0-53

so that k= = |Qg ^ = with logarithms to the base e, for area

samples of 20 acres. Where the equation is written Sn-Si = kSi log n, kSi
is seen to be the same as the Index of Diversity (a) (Williams, 1944) which
is stated to be independent of sample size, a seems to be the product of
two factors,

S i (the number of species in the sample area) which depends on the diversity
of species in the habitat, but also increases with the size of the sample,
and

the factor k, which decreases as the size of the initial sample increases (in
fact, starting with a sample n times as large as that giving a value of

k equal to k]

the value kn- -■ , \ - -

n 1 +ki log n

on theoretical grounds), but which

seems to be independent of the type or diversity of the area (see column 6
of Table II on which the value of k depends) provided that the samples to
be combined themselves satisfy certain conditions of uniformity one with
another (see appendix (3)).

Using the value 0-48 for k, the Indices of Diversity for the homo¬
geneous groups of areas are:

a

Inner Woodland FGH 0-48 x 86 41

Outer Woodland ABC 0-48 x 135 65

Scrub DEO, MST 0-48 x 193 93

Grassland and Scrub PQR 0-48 x 214 103

It is stated that there has been discussion as to whether the graph of
number of species plotted against log (area) is linear or sigmoid (Greig-
Smith, 1964). For one case which I have examined the line curves up¬
wards for n-4, but this is accounted for by the fact that for the most part
the similar areas fall into groups of three and the addition of a fourth
includes a new vegetation type. C. B. Williams says that the linear law
holds provided that samples are taken from the same population in the
same ecological situation, and the number of species will increase more
rapidly if we extend into a different population. The required “unifor¬
mity” therefore cannot in general be found to extend over more than about
60 acres at Bookham, and we must remind ourselves that in three 20-acre
areas “uniformity” requires only one-third of the species to be common
to them all.

In the case of the six areas DEO, MST, however, we have a set which,
although they are not actually adjoining, are separated only by a small
strip of area N, and form a belt of scrub running across the common from

North-west to South, and for these six areas is shown. Here the graph

oi

appears to be linear for values of n up to 6. It is hoped to continue
investigations when a set of punched cards forms part of the Bookham
Research equipment, at present all counting has been done the primitive
and laborious way.

Figure III shows the number of species which occur in only one area, in
exactly two areas, exactly three areas, and so on up to 19 areas.

110

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

corrected
value for
5 areas

1-5 6-10

-15 16-20

No of areas

Fig. 3(a). Relation between the number Fig. 3(b). The data of fig. 3(a)
of species and the number of areas in in groups of 5 areas,

which they are found.

Of the 115 species which are found in only one area, 19 occur in Q,
14 in R, 14 in J, and 10 in N, but only one of them is found in area G and
none in F or H (the three inner woodland areas).

The original paper listed the most common species for each habitat.
Below is a list of the most widely distributed species on the common,
those which were found in over 75 % of the sample areas.

Cirsium pcilustre

All 19 areas

Quercus robur

Crataegus monogyna

Ranunculus flammula

Deschampsia caespitosa

R. re pens

Holcus lanatus

Rosa spp.

Juncus effusus

Rubus spp.

Lonicera periclymenum

Salix atrocinerea

Potentilla erecta

St ell aria holostea

Pteridium aquilinum

Dactyl is glomerata

18 areas

Rumex acetosa

Hedera helix

Tamus communis

Prunella vulgaris

Veronica chamaedrys

Prunus spinosa

Anthoxanthum odoratum

17 areas

Poa annua

Be tula verrucosa

Potentilla anserina

Brachypodium sylvaticum

Potentilla sterilis

Chamaenerion augustifolium

Rumex sanguineus var. viridis

Galium aparine

Sambucus nigra

Glechoma hederacea

Taraxacum officinale

FLOWERS AND FIGURES

111

Agrostis canina
Ajuga rep tans
Cerastium vulgatum
Cory lus av ell ana
Fragaria vesca
Fraxinus excelsior
Geranium robertianum
Geum urbanum

Alisma plantago-aquatica
Arrhenatherum elatius
Carex hirta
Cornus sanguinea
Dry op ter is felix-tnas
Galium hercynicum
Heracleum sphondyllium

16 areas

Ilex aquifolium
Juncus bufonius
Plantago major
Potentilla reptans
Ranunculus ficaria
Solatium dulcamara
Stachys sylvatica
Stellaria graminea

15 areas

Juncus conglomeratus
Lotus uliginosus
Ruscus acul eat us
Trifolium repens
Urtica dioica
Viola riviniana

APPENDIX

(1) Species found only in area J. Those marked (G) suggest that the area
was diversified by escapes or weeds from adjacent gardens.

(G) Calystegia sylvestris
Epipactis sessiliflora
(G) Fragaria cf. x ananassa
Fumaria officinalis
Hordeum spp. (Barley)
Hypericum androsaemum
(G) Lactuca sativa

(G) Ligustrum ovalifolium
(G) Melissa officinalis
(G) Pentaglottis sempervirens
(G) Oxalis europaea (Jord.)

(G) Polygonum cuspidatum
(G) Primula spp.

(G) Tropaeolum majus (Nasturtium)

(2) Species found in A but not in B or C. A, B, C, are the northern most
woodland areas bounded on the north by farmland. At the time of the
survey A and C each contained a small open area and a small pond.
It is to be expected that A and C will each contain rather more species
than B (A 160, C 129, B 116) but it is not easy to explain why the number
of species found in A alone of these three areas should be twice as many
as those in C alone.

Achillea ptarmica

Juncus tenuis

Adoxa moschatellina

Lamium album

Agrimonia odorata

Lathyrus pratensis

Alopecurus geniculatus

Leontodon autumnalis

Arum maculatum

Lychnis flos-cuculi

Bryonia dioica

Melandrium rubrum

Carex hirta

Mentha x verticillata

C. nigra

Myosotis arvensis

C. otrubae

M. caespitosa

C. ovalis

Orchis fuchsii

Castanea sativa

Poa pratensis

Chenopodium rubrum

Populus tremula

Cirsium vulgare

Potentilla reptans

Epilobium montanum

Ranunculus acris

Festuca ovina

R. aquatilis

Frangula alnus

Ribes rubrum

Galium palustre

Salix fragilis

Hypericum perforatum

Scrophularia aquatica

H. hirsutum

Stachys officinalis

H. tetraspermum

Veronica officinalis

Juncus conglomeratus

Viburnum opulus

(3) Table III shows that the factor k in the Index of Diversity, which for
an amalgamation of 3 samples involves only d, the difference in the
proportions of species found in one sample only and of those found in all
three samples, is not greatly affected by the diversity of the vegetation
in the different areas, but is a measure of the variation in the samples
forming the composite area. Since the value of the Index of Diversity
can be obscured by this variation, d, and hence k, should lie within certain
narrow limits. For example, the plains areas contain streams whose
courses are marked by a belt of conspicuously different vegetation, and if
one of the samples had consisted mainly of this belt, the value of d for
the plains might have been too great to ensure the validity of the calcula¬
tion of an Index of Diversity in comparison with other areas.

112

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

The numbers in column 6 depend on the contribution of each sample
to the proportions pi, p2, P3 and their correlation with the values of d,
about 0-7, is not proved significant at the 5% level with these few results.
Thus to base the rejection of IJK-L on a divergence of over 20 % from the
mean is a tentative suggestion, intended to suggest future lines of inquiry.

TABLE III

Column 1
Combined area

Proportion of species in:

Column 5
d

(P1-P3)

Column 6
Maximum
divergence from
mean as % of
mean

Column 2
One sample
only
(Pi)

Column 3
Exactly 2
samples
(p 2)

Column 4
All 3
samples
(P3)

FGH

0 31

0 31

0-37

-006

15

ABC

0-37

0-33

0-29

+ 008

18

IJK-L

0-48

0-26

026

+ 022

25

MST

0-43

0-22

0-35

+ 008

9

DEO

0-40

0-28

032

+ 008

9

PQR

0-37

0-25

038

-001

13

k loge 3 = - - -

2 — d

CONCLUSIONS

1 . Areas similar in their vegetation types have been grouped together for
investigation, and it is found that as the vegetation progresses to climax
oakwood on Bookham common, the number of species of vascular plants
is reduced to about two-fifths of that in the open areas. Conservation
should therefore consist in checking the progress towards uniform oak-
wood. Scrub is periodically cleared, but it seems desirable also to delay
the encroachment of woodland on scrub areas, if we wish to encourage a
habitat favouring maximum variety of species. Clearing of woodland,
however, can result in increase of bracken areas, and bracken is a great
destroyer of variety.

2. The law that the increment in the number of species as area increases
is proportional to log (area) is verified over a range of values of n for
which it could a priori be expected to be valid, and a list of Indices of
Diversity compiled for areas of differing vegetation types.

3. A list of the most widely distributed species on Bookham Common is
given.

Thanks are due to the team who made the original survey and thus
made this investigation possible: A. W. Jones, E. B. Bangerter, C. P.
Castell, Mrs. J. F. Hall and P. C. Hall.

I should like to thank also P. A. Moxey, E. M. Forsyth, and Dr. G.
Beven for helpful suggestions, and particularly Mrs. A. Warren, who
typed this paper and checked some of the details.

REFERENCES

CLAPHAM, A. R., TUTIN, T. G., and WARBURG, E. F., 1952. Flora of the British Isles. 1st
Edition. Cambridge.

GREIG-SMITH, P., 1964. Quantitive Plant Ecology. 2nd Edition, London.

JONES, A. W., 1954. The Flora of Bookham Common. Lond. Nat., 33, 25-47.

MORONEY, M. J., 1951. Facts from Figures. Penguin Books, Harmondsworth.

RUSSELL LANGLEY, 1968. Practical Statistics.

WILLIAMS, C. B., 1943. Area and Number of Species. Nature, 152, 264-267.

WILLIAMS, C. B., 1944. Some Applications of the Logarithmic Series and Index of Diversity
to Ecological Problems. J. Ecol., 32, 1-44.

{Received February 1969 )

RECENT TEMPORARY EXPOSURES OF LONDON CLAY

113

Some Recent Temporary Exposures of London

Clay in the London Area

By Adrian J. Rundle and John Cooper

( Department of Geology , University of Nottingham , and Department of
Palaeontology, British Museum ( Natural History ))

INTRODUCTION

As London is an intensely built up area there are few permanent
geological exposures available for study, excepting the one or two sche¬
duled sites scattered around the Greater London perimeter. The London
Clay which underlies much of the city can therefore only be studied by
means of temporary exposures such as building sites, road works, etc.
For this reason it is important to describe thoroughly as many temporary
sites as possible, as failure to do so results in information being irretrievably
lost. It is surprising, therefore, that so little has been published on the
London Clay in this area, and that much of what has been published is
inadequate. In many of the previous records the biotic (faunal and
floral) lists are based entirely on fossils picked up in the field. This prac¬
tice is unsatisfactory when dealing with lithologies which can be readily
processed in the laboratory, as most of the smaller elements of the biota
are overlooked. The lack of published information is probably due to
the sparsely fossiliferous nature of the London Clay generally, and the
necessity of collecting large samples to get a true idea of the biota present.
In order to find out how fossiliferous the clay is to 30 mesh, the samples
collected during this study were weighed dry, and the usable fossils
obtained from the residue were weighed. It was found that on average
it was necessary to collect 21-8 kg of dry clay to obtain 1 g of usable
fossils. The authors have, therefore, tried to collect at least 20 kg of clay
at each locality visited, although this has not always been possible.

It is the purpose of this and succeeding papers to try to make good this
deficiency of published information, and eventually to draw conclusions
about the stratigraphic and geographic distribution of the biotas. In this
paper eight temporary and two semi-permanent exposures of London
Clay from the London Area are described, and the biota from each listed.
Next year we plan to continue by describing a further series of sites
including the large excavation of the new Wraysbury Reservoir near
Staines.

All localities are described in a standard format to allow easy informa¬
tion retrieval. Following the fossil names in the biotic lists are rough
estimates of their relative abundance at each locality and their known
range in the London Clay of the London Area based on Wrigley (1924
and 1940) with modifications on the evidence of material in the British
Museum (Natural History). All sample weights quoted are of dry clay.

Wrigley was deliberately vague about where the junctions between
successive divisions should be placed. This was due to the somewhat
variable stratigraphic distribution of his diagnostic faunas above the
Basement Bed, and is borne out by the present study. Even so, we have
found that generally division 1 is restricted to the lowermost 50 ft. of clay,
division 2 to the succeeding 140 ft. of clay, and division 3 to the next

114

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, 1970

60 ft. The transition from divisions 3 and 4 usually takes place at about
250 ft. above the Basement Bed, and the succeeding variable thickness
of clay can be ascribed to division 4 up to the uppermost 50 ft. of the forma¬
tion which falls in division 5.

A representative series of specimens has been deposited in the Depart¬
ment of Palaeontology, British Museum (Natural History) and where
possible sieved concentrates between 30 and 200 mesh are being retained
by one of us (A. J. R.) to permit future work on the microfossils.

1. BESSBOROUGH GARDENS, LONDON, S.W.l.

Locality : Site of the Brixton extension of Victoria Line (London Trans¬
port Underground railway) near Vauxhall Bridge.

Grid Reference: TQ 299783. Height (O.D.): 18 ft.

Contractors: Balfour Beatty Ltd.

Reported by: Jean Cooper.

Collectors: J. C., Mr. C. I. Macadie and A. J. R. (August 8, 1968).
Section: No section visible. A composite section for the area compiled
from Geol. Surv. 6" Maps is given below.

Made ground 16 ft.

Peaty clay 10 ft.

River Gravel up to 18 ft.

London Clay about 100 ft. thick

Lithology of London Clay: Typical stiff blue-grey pyritic clay with
common flat concretions.

BIOTIC LIST: Based on the contents of a 56T kg sample collected from
the clay tip (dug out from a depth of 90-95 ft.).

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Common. (1-5). A very diverse fauna is present.
BRACHIOPODA

Lingula tenuis J. Sowerby. Rare. (4—5).

BIVALVIA

Corbula globosa J. Sowerby. Rare. (3-5).

Nuculana amygdaloides (J. de C. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Pinna sp. (probably P. affinis J. Sowerby). Rare. (5).

GASTROPODA

Bathytoma granata (Edwards). Rare. (4-5).

Bulla sp. Rare. (3-5).

Euspira glaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Streptolathyrus cymatodis (Edwards). Rare. (3).

SCAPHOPODA

“ Antalis ” nitens (J. Sowrerby). Rare. (2-5).

CEPHALOPODA

Undetermined nautiloids. Frequent. (2-5). Seven specimens were reported by a workman.
ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

ARTHROPODA

Undetermined ostracods. Frequent. (2-5).

ECHINODERMATA

Ophioglypha wetherelli (Forbes). Common. (2-5). Only disarticulated plates were found.
Indeterminate irregular echinoid fragments. Frequent. (5).

PISCES

Indeterminate lamnid tooth. Rare. (2-5).

Indeterminate teleost bones. Rare. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths)

Brosmophycis sagittalis (Frost). Rare. (2-5).

Discussion: The Basement Bed varies in depth from -78 ft. to - 130 ft.
O.D. in the proximity of this site. The clay probably came from about
50 ft. above the base of the formation in the region of the junction between

RECENT TEMPORARY EXPOSURES OF LONDON CLAY

115

divisions 1 and 2. Although the fauna is not a diagnostic one we would
prefer to refer it to division 2 as this division is generally characterised by
an impoverished undiagnostic biota, whereas division 1 is usually un-
fossiliferous.

2. BRENTFORD, MIDDLESEX

Locality: Building site opposite the “Duke of York” public house,
Brook Lane North, Brentford.

Grid Reference: TQ 177781. Height (O.D.): 40 ft.

Contractors: Rush and Tompkins.

Reported by: Mr. C. A. Walker.

Collectors: J. C., Mr. C. I. Macadie, A. J. R. and Mr. C. A. Walker
(June 17-18, 1968).

Section: An approximate section was obtained from the drop corers.
Made ground about 5 ft.

River Gravel 20 ft.

London Clay (not pierced) 25 ft.

Lithology of London Clay: Typical stiff blue-grey pyritic clay contain¬
ing many concretions.

BIOTIC LIST : Based on the fossils collected on two occasions and on the
contents of a 154 kg sample of clay.

PLANTAE (identifications of fruits verified by Dr. K. I. M. Chesters)

Undetermined hystrichospheres. Common. (4).

Anonaspermum commune Reid and Chandler. Rare. Only previously recorded from Sheppey,
Kent.

Bowerbankella tiliacoroidea Reid and Chandler. Rare. Also only previously recorded from
Sheppey, Kent.

Indeterminate wood fragments. Common. (2-5).

Copaline. Rare. (3-5). Only previously recorded from King George VI Reservoir, Stanwell,
Middlesex and Highgate (“Highgate Resin”).

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Abundant. (1-5). A diverse fauna is present.

COELENTERATA

Graphularia wetherelli Milne-Edwards. Rare. (2-5). Only the square form was found.
BRACHIOPODA

Lingula tenuis J. Sowerby. Rare. (4-5).

BIVALVIA

Amusium ( Lentipecten ) corneum (J. Sowerby). Rare. (4-5).

Anomia scabrosa S. V. Wood. Rare. (3).

Corbula globosa J. Sowerby. Frequent. (3-5).

Nemocardium semigranulatum (J. Sowerby). Rare. (3).

Nucula compressa J. de C. Sowerby. Rare. (3-5).

Nuculana amygdaloides (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

?Ostrea sp. Rare. (3-5). One small juvenile found.

Pholadomya sp. (probably P. margaritacea (J. Sowerby)). Frequent. (3-5).

Pinna sp. (probably P. affinis J. Sowerby). Rare. (5).

Thracia sp. (probably T. oblata (J. de C. Sowerby)). Rare. Only previously recorded from
Bognor Regis, Sussex in the London Clay.

Indeterminate teredinid tubes. Rare. (2-5). Two valve fragments also attributable to this
family were found.

GASTROPODA

Adeorbis sp. Frequent. (3-5). Only known from Highate and Finchley in the London Clay.
Alvania sp. Rare. Not recorded from the London Clay.

Ancilla atrebatum Wrigley. Frequent. (3-5).

Bathytoma granata (Edwards). Rare. (4-5).

Bonellitia laeviuscula (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Bulla sp. Rare. (3-5).

Bullinella cf. consors (Deshayes). Rare. (3-5).

Eopleurotoma simillima (Edwards). Rare. (4—5).

Euspira glaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Ficus ( Priscoficus ) multiformis Wrigley. Frequent. (3-5).

Lacuna sp. nov. Rare. This genus is unrecorded from the London Clay.

Litiopa sulculosa Edwards MS.. Rare. (5).

Odostomia spp. Frequent. (5).

Pseudoneptunea curta (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (4—5).

Ptychatractus interruptus (Pilkington). Rare. (3-5).

116

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Ringicula turgida (J. Sowerby). Rare. (4-5).

Seila mundula (Deshayes). Rare. (3).

Tibia sublucida (Edwards). Frequent. Not previously recorded from the London Basin although
there are specimens of this species labelled “ Tibia lucida ” in the British Museum collections
from several London localities.

?Tornateilaea simulata (Solander). Rare. (3-5).

Volvula sp. Rare. New to the London Clay.

PTEROPODA

Spiratella mercinensis (Watelet and Lefevre). Frequent. (2-5).

S. tutelina Curry. Rare. (3-5). Verified by Mr. D. Curry.

CEPHALOPODA (determined by Mr. D. Phillips)

Eutrephoceras regalis (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-3). A specimen was found by a workman.
ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Abundant. (2-5).

Rotularia bognoriensis (Mantell). Common. (3-5).

ARTHROPODA

Undetermined malacostracan claw fragments (?gen. nov.). Frequent. Conspecific with those
found at Trans-World Hotels site {q.v.).

Indeterminate malacostracan claw fragment. Rare. (2-5).

Undetermined ostracods. Frequent. (2-5).

Euscalpellum minutum (T. Brown). Rare. (3-5).

ECHINODERMATA

Ophioglypha wetherelli (Forbes). Abundant. (2-5). Only disarticulated plates were found.
Indeterminate irregular echinoid fragments. Rare. (5).

PISCES

Heterodontus vincenti (Leriche). Rare. (3). This species has only been recorded from Worcester
Park and Sheppey in the London Basin.

Isistius trituratus (Winkler). Rare. Only previously recorded from Bognor Regis and Sheppey
in the London Clay of this country.

Indeterminate lamnid tooth. Rare. (2-5).

Indeterminate teleost bones. Frequent. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths)

Apogon glaber Stinton. Rare. (2-3).

Cepola densa (Frost). Rare. (4-5).

Dinematichthys argutus Stinton. Frequent. (2-5).

Neobythites obtusus (Frost). Rare. (2-5).

Synodus davisi (Frost). Rare. (2-5).

Trachichthodes lemoinei (Priem). Rare. (2-5).

ICHNOFAUNA

Indeterminate faecal pellets. Common. No range known.

Discussion: The clay available comes from between about 235 ft. and
260 ft. above the Basement Bed, and spans the junction between divisions
3 and 4. The rich biota also, is intermediate in character between these
two divisions.

3. BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY), LONDON, S.W.7.

Locality : Two drop-coring sites within the grounds of the British Museum
(Natural History), South Kensington.

Grid Reference: TQ 267791. Height (O.D.): 25 ft.

Contractors: Pre-piling survey by Ministry of Public Building and
Works.

Collectors: J. C. and A. J. R. (June 21 and July 9, 1968).

Section: The section given below summarises the information from both
sites.

Made ground and River Gravel 22 ft.

Weathered London Clay (brown) 1 ft.

Unweathered London Clay (not pierced) cored to 10 ft.

Lithology of London Clay: Typical stiff blue-grey clay.

BIOTIC LIST : Based entirely on specimens obtained from a 58-7 kg sample.

PLANTAE

Undetermined hystrichospheres. Common. (4).

Indeterminate wood fragments. Rare. (2-5).

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Abundant. (1-5). A varied fauna is present.

BRYOZOA (verified by Dr. C. T. Scrutton)

Batopora clithridiata (Gregory). Frequent. (5).

RECENT TEMPORARY EXPOSURES OF LONDON CLAY

117

BRACHIOPODA

Terebratulina wardenensis Elliott. Rare. (2-3).

BIVALVIA

Thyasira goodhalli (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

Indeterminate teredinid tubes. Rare. (2-5).

GASTROPODA
Bulla sp. Rare. (3-5).

Bullinella cf. consors (Deshayes). Rare. (3-5).

Euspira glaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

ARTHROPODA

Indeterminate coleopteran elytron. Rare. See note for Venablesia from Brixton.

Hoploparia gammaroides McCoy. Rare. (2-5). Only represented by a pincer fragment.
Indeterminate malacostracan claw (probably xanthid). Rare. (2-5).

Undetermined ostracods. Rare. (2-5).

Euscalpellum minutum (T. Brown). Rare. (3-5).

ECHINODERMATA

Undetermined crinoid arm plates. Rare.

PISCES

Notidanus serratissimus Agassiz. Rare. New to the London area. Only previously found at
Sheppey and Bognor Regis.

Indeterminate lamnid tooth. Rare. (2-5).

Indeterminate teleost bones. Frequent. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths)

Indeterminate brotulid otolith. Rare. (2-5). One worn fragment found.

ICHNOFAUNA

Indeterminate faecal pellets. Frequent. No range known.

Discussion: The London Clay is about 185 ft. thick in this area. The
biota is impoverished and non-diagnostic and thus corresponds with
division 2. This probably represents the topmost few feet of division 2
on consideration of the height above the Basement Bed.

4. BRIXTON, LONDON, S.W.9.

Locality: Victoria Line (London Transport Underground trains) shaft
in Somerleyton Road, Brixton.

Grid Reference: TQ 314752. Height (O.D.): 40 ft.

Contractors: A. Waddington & Son.

Collectors: J. C. and A. J. R. (October 18, 1968).

Section: No section visible. The one given below is from the corner of
Barnwell Road and Hamilton Road (Geol. Surv. 6" Map).

Made ground c. 3 ft.

Flood Plain Gravel c. 5 ft.

London Clay (to base) c. 150 ft.

Lithology of London Clay: Typical massive blue-grey clay containing
some tabular and some rounded concretions.

BIOTIC LIST : The specimens all come from a tip of clay dug out from
60 ft. below ground. A few specimens were found on the tip whilst
in the field, but the majority of them were obtained from a 52 kg sample.

PLANTAE

Indeterminate wood fragments. Frequent. (2-5).

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Common. (1-5). A fairly diverse fauna is present.
COELENTERATA

Graphularia wetherelli Milne-Edwards. Rare. (2-5). One specimen of the square form was
found.

BRACHIOPODA

Lingula tenuis J. Sowerby. Frequent. (4-5).

118

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

BIVALVIA

Nuculana amygdaloides (J. de C. Sowerby). Common. (2-5).

Thyasira goodhalli (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

GASTROPODA
?Actaeon sp. Rare.

Albania sp. Frequent. Not recorded from the London Clay.

Ancilla atrebatum Wrigley. Rare. (3-5).

Bulla sp. Rare. (3-5).

Euspira glaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Lacuna sp. Rare. Not recorded from the London Clay.

PTEROPODA

Spiratella mercinensis (Watelet and Lefevre). Common. (2-5).

S. cf. taylori Curry. Rare. (2-5). Two juveniles which probably belong to this species were
kindly identified by Mr. D. Curry.

SCAPHOPODA (determined by Mr. C. P. Palmer)

Antalis anceps (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-3).

Gadila [ Cadulus ] sp. Rare. (5). Only known from Tolworth, Newnham, and Lower Swanwick.
ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Common. (2-5).

ARTHROPODA

Venablesia cf. colluvium Britton. Rare. This and the specimen from the British Museam
(Natural History) site are the first London Clay beetles to be recorded from a locality other than
Bognor Regis in this country. They are also the first to be obtained by sieving the clay, those
from Bognor come from wave-washed concentrates found on the foreshore (Venables and
Taylor, 1963). This specimen is only tentatively referred to this species as the elytra are
smooth, probably due to rolling.

Indeterminate malacostracan fragments. Common. (2-5).

Undetermined ostracods. Frequent. (2-5).

ECHINODERMATA

Ophioglypha wetherelli (Forbes). Common. (2-5). Only disarticulated plates were found.
Indeterminate irregular echinoid fragments. Rare. (5).

PISCES

Indeterminate teleost bones. Common. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths)

Apogon glaber Stinton. Rare. (2-3).

Dinematichthys argutus Stinton. Rare. (2-5).

Synodus davisi (Frost). Rare. (2-5).

ICHNOFAUNA

Indeterminate faecal pellets. Common. No range known.

Discussion: As the London Clay is about 150 ft. thick in this area, the
sample collected must have come from about 90 ft. above the base of the
formation. This, and the nature of the fauna firmly places it within
division 2.

5. DRURY LANE, LONDON, W.C.2.

Locality: Building site on the corner of Parker Street and Drury Lane.
Grid Reference: TQ 303812. Height (O.D.): 75 ft.

Contractors : Humphrey’s.

Collectors: J. C. and Mr. J. J. Hooker (January 9, 1968).

Section: ft. ins.

Made ground c. 16 0

Taplow Gravel 6 8

Weathered London Clay (brown) 1, 3

Unweathered London Clay seen to 1 8

Lithology of London Clay: Typical blue-grey clay with concretions.

BIOTIC LIST : This list is based almost entirely on the contents of a 0-5
kg sample.

RECENT TEMPORARY EXPOSURES OF LONDON CLAY

119

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Frequent. (1-5).

COELENTERATA

Graphularia wetherelli Milne-Edwards. Frequent. (2-5). Only the round form found.
BRACHIOPODA

Lingula tenuis J. Sowerby. Rare. (4-5).

BIVALVIA

Nucula bowerbanki J. de C. Sowerby. Rare. (2-5).

SCAPHOPODA

“ Antalis ” nitens (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

PISCES

Indeterminate teleost tooth. Rare. This tooth is characteristic of the type called Ardiodus
marriotti White, but as similar teeth can be found in several unrelated families of Recent
teleosts we prefer to consider it as indeterminate.

Indeterminate teleost bones. Rare. (2-5).

Discussion: The London Clay is about 100 ft. thick at this site, which,
together with the undiagnostic fauna, places the clay sampled within
division 2.

6. IMPERIAL COLLEGE, LONDON, S.W.7.

Locality: Building site at W. end of block of Imperial College of Science
and Technology, Imperial Institute Road, South Kensington.

Grid Reference: TQ 26617922. Height (O.D.): 32 ft.

Contractors: Harry Neal Ltd.

Reported by: Miss A. M. Davis.

Collectors: J. C. and Mr. C. I. Macadie (July 15, 1968).

Section: As the section exposed was inaccessible the thicknesses given
below are estimated.

Made ground 6-8 ft.

River Gravel 8-9 ft.

London Clay (bored to 50 ft. but

not pierced) c. 2 ft.

Lithology of London Clay : Typical stiff blue-grey clay.

BIOTIC LIST : Based entirely on the contents of a 23-8 kg sample of clay.

PLANTAE

Undetermined hystrichospheres. Abundant. (4). “Large’’ hystrichospheres form a dominant
element of the biota between 100 and 200 mesh.

Indeterminate wood fragments. Rare. (2-5).

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Abundant.- (1-5). A very diverse fauna is present.
COELENTERATA

Graphularia wetherelli Milne-Edwards. Frequent. (2-5). About equal numbers of square and
round forms are present.

Octacoral spicules. Rare. This is probably a new record for the London Clay.

BRYOZOA (verified by Dr. C. T. Scrutton)

Batopora clithridiata (Gregory). Rare. (5).

BRACHIOPODA

Terebratulina wardenensis Elliott. Frequent. (2-3).

BIVALVIA

Nucula compressa J. de C. Sowerby. Rare. (3-5).

Venericardia sp. Rare. (5). One small fragment found.

GASTROPODA

Bullinella cf. consors (Deshayes). Rare. (3-5).

Euspira glaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

120

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

?Sclerostyla sp. Rare. (4-5). Only a fragment of a small tube was found.

Undetermined annelid jaws (scolecodonts). Rare. No range known.

ARTHROPODA

Undetermined ostracods. Rare. (2-5).

ECHINODERMATA

Ophioglypha wetherelli (Forbes). Rare. (2-5). Only disarticulated plates were found.
Indeterminate irregular echinoid plates. Rare. (5).

PISCES

Indeterminate selachian tooth fragment. Rare. (2-5).

Indeterminate teleost bones. Frequent. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths)

Dinematichthys argutus Stinton. Rare. (2-5).

Neobythites obtusus (Frost). Rare. (2-5).

ICHNOFAUNA

Indeterminate faecal pellets. Common. No range known.

Discussion : This clay must come from the top of division 2 for the same
reasons as those given for the British Museum (Natural History) site.

7. ISLEWORTH, MIDDLESEX

Locality : Exposure on Thames foreshore opposite W. end of Syon Park,
Isleworth.

Grid Reference: TQ 170761. Height (O.D.): about 5 ft.

Reported by: This locality came to our notice because Mr. John Miller
found a well preserved tooth of Lamna obliqua (Agassiz) here and
presented it to the Department of Palaeontology, British Museum
(Natural History) (registration number P.46776). Mr. H. A. Toombs
then showed the specimen to one of the authors.

Collectors: A. J. R., Mr. E. P. Rundle and Miss B. H. Rundle (1964-
1968).

Section : No section exposed. The London Clay occurs in patches on the
foreshore where the overlying River Gravels have been eroded away.

Lithology of London Clay: Typical stiff blue-grey clay with a layer of
large concretions.

BIOTIC LIST : Based mainly on specimens obtained on about twenty
visits to the site.

plantae

Indeterminate wood fragments. Common. (2-5).

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Common. (1-5).

COELENTERATA

Graphularia wetherelli Milne-Edwards. Rare. (2-5). Only the square form was found.

BIVALVIA

Abra splendens (J. de C. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Amusium ( Lentipecten ) corneum (J. Sowerby). Rare. (4-5).

Corbula globosa J. Sowerby. Abundant. (3-5).

Cuspidaria inflata J. de C. Sowerby. Rare. (3-5).

Glycymeris wrigleyi Curry. Rare. (2-5).

Nemocardium semigranulatum (J. Sowerby). Rare. (3).

Nucula compressa J. de C. Sowerby. Frequent. (3-5).

Nuculana amygdaloides (J. de C. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Indeterminate teredinid tubes. Rare. (2-5).

GASTROPODA

Bathytoma granata (Edwards). Rare. (4-5).

Bonellitia laeviuscula (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Bulla sp. Rare. (3-5).

Bullinella cf. consors (Deshayes). Rare. (3-5).

Eopleurotoma simillima (Edwards). Frequent. (4-5).

RECENT TEMPORARY EXPOSURES OF LONDON CLAY

121

Epitonium primaevum Cossmann. Rare. (5).

Euspira glaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Common. (2-5).

Euthriofusus crebrilineus Wrigley. Frequent. New to the London Basin.

E. transfer sarius Wrigley. Frequent. (3-5).

Ficus ( Priscoficus ) multiformis Wrigley. Common. (3-5).

Hemipleurotoma prestwichi (Edwards). Rare. (3-5).

H. taeniolata (Edwards). Rare. (4).

Odostomia sp. Rare. (5).

Pseudoneptunea curta (J. de C. Sowerby). Common. (4-5).

Ptychatractus angusta (Deshayes). Frequent. (5). This species is unrecorded from the London
Clay although there are specimens of it from Highgate in the British Museum collections,
previously included with P. interruptus. Its presence was kindly pointed out by Mr. C. King.
P. interruptus (Pilkington). Frequent. (3-5).

Ringicula turgida (J. Sowerby). Rare. (4-5).

Seila mundula (Deshayes). Rare. (3).

Sinum clathratum (Gmelin). Rare. (2-5).

Solariaxis pulcher (J. de C. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Surculites errans (Solander). Rare. (3-5).

Tibia sublucida (Edwards). Common. See note under Brentford.

Turricula symmetrica (Edwards). Rare. (3-5).

T. teretrium (Edwards). Rare. (4-5).

Volutocorbis elevata (J. Sowerby). Rare. (3-5).

CEPHALOPODA

Indeterminate nautiloid fragments. Rare. (2-5).

ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Abundant. (2-5).

PISCES

Albula oweni (Owen). Rare. (4). One worn tooth found. Only previously known from
Bracknell, Sheppey and Bognor Regis.

Lamna obliqua (Agassiz). Rare. (3). See under “Reported by” for details.

Myliobatis cf. toliapicus Agassiz. Rare. (5). One well preserved median tooth found. Only
previously recorded from Highate and Sheppey.

Indeterminate lamnid teeth. Rare. (2-5).

Indeterminate teleost bones. Rare. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths, (verified by Mr. F. C. Stinton)

Apogon glaber Stinton. Rare. (2-3).

Cepola densa (Frost). Rare. (4—5).

Dinematichthys argutus Stinton. Rare. (2-5).

Pterothrissus angulatus Stinton. Rare. (2-5).

Discussion: The London Clay is about 360 ft. thick in this area. This
places the clay exposed well within division 4, although the biota is very
similar to that from Brentford.

8. KEW RAILWAY BRIDGE, SURREY

Locality: Exposure on Thames foreshore, south side, about 100 yards
W. of the bridge.

Grid Reference: TQ 195775. Height (O.D.): about 5 ft.

Reported by: Occurrence noted in Porter (1936).

Collector: A. J. R. (1964-1968).

Section: No section visible. The fossils were collected from the vicinity
of weathered London Clay visible between boulders on the foreshore.
The London Clay is overlain by River Gravels.

Lithology of London Clay: Only very weathered orangey clay seen.

BIOTIC LIST : Porter records the presence of Rotularia bognoriensis
(Mantell), but unfortunately this could not be verified. The specimens
listed here were collected on about a dozen visits to the site.

PLANTAE

Indeterminate wood fragments. Frequent. (2-5).

BIVALVIA

Indeterminate teredinid tubes. Rare. (2-5).

CEPHALOPODA (determined by Mr. D. Phillips)

Nautiloid (probably Cimomia imperialis (J. Sowerby)). Rare. (2-5).

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THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

ARTHROPODA

Dromilites bucklandi Milne-Edwards. Rare. (3-5).

PISCES

Indeterminate teleost bones. Rare. (2-5).

Discussion : The London Clay is about 240 ft. in this region, thus placing
the exposed clay close to the junction between divisions 3 and 4. The
biota is not sufficiently well known to be any more precise.

9. LONDON AIRPORT, MIDDLESEX

Locality : Site of a new roundabout N. of the main entrance to London
Airport.

Grid Reference: TQ 075770. Height (O.D.): 85 ft.

Contractors: Costain.

Collectors: Dr. D. D. Bayliss, Mr. C. P. Nuttall and Mr. E. P. Smith
(July 8, 1963).

Section: No section was recorded.

Lithology of London Clay : Dark greenish-grey to brownish-grey clay.
BIOTIC LIST: Based entirely on specimens collected in the field.

PLANT AE

Indeterminate wood fragments. Rare. (2-5).

BRACHIOPODA

Terebratulina wardenensis Elliott. Frequent. (2-3).

BIVALVIA

Abra splendens (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

Area cf. impolita J. de C. Sowerby. Frequent. (3-5).

Arctica planata (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (3—4).

Nuculana amygdaloides (J. de C. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-3).

Ostrea gryphovicina S. V. Wood. Rare. (3-5).

Pteria media (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (3-5).

Thyasira goodhalli (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

Indeterminate teredinid tubes. Frequent. (2-5).

GASTROPODA

Aporrhais sowerbii (Fleming). Frequent. (3-5).

Bathytoma granata (Edwards). Frequent. (4-5).

“ Cassis ” striata J. Sowerby. Frequent. (3-5).

Daphnobela junceum (Solander). Rare. (3-5).

Eopleurotoma simillima (Edwards) var. crassilinea Edwards. Frequent. (3).

Euspira giaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Frequent. (2-5).

Euthriofusus transversarius Wrigley. Rare. (3-5).

Ficus {Priscoficus) multiformis Wrigley. Frequent. (3-5).

Murex suberistatus d’Orbigny. Rare. (4-5).

Orthochetus elongatus Wrigley. Frequent. (2-4).

Scaphella wethereiii (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (3).

Solariaxis pulcher (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

Streptoiathyrus cymatodis (Edwards). Frequent. (3).

Surculites errans (Solander). Rare. (3-5).

Tibia sublucida (Edwards). Rare. See note under Brentford.

Turricula helix (Edwards). Frequent. (3).

CEPHALOPODA

Cimomia imperialis (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

ANNELIDA

Rotularia bognoriensis (Mantell). Frequent. (3-5).

ARTHROPODA

Indeterminate malacostracan claw (probably xanthid). Rare. (2-5).

Euscalpellum minutum (T. Brown). Rare. (3-5).

PISCES

Indeterminate lamnid tooth. Rare. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths)

Trachichthodes lemoinei (Priem). Rare. (2-5).

RECENT TEMPORARY EXPOSURES OF LONDON CLAY

123

ICHNOFAUNA

Indeterminate faecal pellets. Abundant. No range known.

Discussion : It appears that there are no borehole records to the base of the
formation from the near vicinity of this site, but it is probably of the same
horizon as at the King George VI Reservoir, Stanwell (Wrigley, 1940)
which is nearby. The typical division 3 biota listed above confirms this.

10. TRANS-WORLD HOTELS SITE, LONDON, S.W.5.

Locality: Building site between Cromwell Road and Knaresborough
Place, South Kensington.

Grid Reference: TQ 257788. Height (O.D.): 30 ft.

Contractors: Taylor Woodrow.

Reported by: Miss A. M. Davis.

Collectors: J. C. and Mr. C. I. Macadie (September 10, 1968).

Section: No section visible. The clay studied was removed from a skip
outside the site, the clay coming from 75-90 ft. below the road.

Lithology of London Clay: Typical stiff blue-grey clay.

BIOTIC LIST : Based on specimens obtained from a 50-3 kg sample of clay

plantae

Undetermined hystrichospheres. Common. (4).

Indeterminate wood fragments. Frequent. (2-5).

PROTOZOA

Undetermined foraminifera. Abundant. (1-5). A very diverse fauna is present.
COELENTERATA

Graphularia wetherelli Milne-Edwards. Rare. (2-5). Only the round form was found.

BRYOZOA (verified by Dr. C. T. Scrutton)

Adeonellopsis sp. Rare.

Batopora clithridiata (Gregory). Rare. (5).

BRACHIOPODA

Lingula tenuis J. Sowerby. Rare. (4-5).

BIVALV1A

Anomia scabrosa S. V. Wood. Rare. (3). One fragment found.

Pecten duplicatus J. de C. Sowerby. Frequent. (3-5). Only fragments found.

Indeterminate teredinid tubes. Rare. (2-5).

GASTROPODA
Bonellitia sp. Rare. (2-5).

Crenilabium sp. Rare. (4).

Euspira glaucinoides (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

PTEROPODA

Spiratella taylori Curry. Rare. (2-5).

SCAPHOPODA

A.ntalis anceps (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-3).

“A.” nitens (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

ANNELIDA

Ditrupa plana (J. Sowerby). Common. (2-5).

ARTHROPODA

Undetermined malacostracan claw fragments (?gen. now). Frequent. Conspecific to those
found at Brentford (q.v.).

Indeterminate malacostracan claws (probably xanthid). Rare. (2-5).

Undetermined ostracods. Frequent. (2-5).

ECHINODERMATA

Cainocrinus tintinnabulum Forbes ( = Pentacrinus oakeshottianus Forbes). Frequent. (3-5).
Confirmed by Mr. H. G. Owen.

PISCES

Squalus minor (Daimeries). Rare. (3).

Indeterminate carcharinid tooth fragment. Rare. (2-5).

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THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Indeterminate teleost bones. Frequent. (2-5).

(represented only by otoliths)

Indeterminate otolith. Rare. (2-5). A very worn specimen was found.

ICHNOFAUNA

Indeterminate faecal pellets. Common. No range known.

Discussion: The Basement Bed is at about — 170 ft. O.D. in this area, so
the clay collected must come from between about 110 and 125 ft. above
the base of the formation. This and the non-diagnostic biota prove it to
be from division 2.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank all those who have helped make this
paper possible, to those who have reported potential sites to us; those
contractors who allowed us to visit their sites; those who helped with the
identification of some of the fossils; and those who have helped by field
collection, especially Mr. C. I. Macadie who not only helped on so many
occasions but also often supplied the transport. We would also like to
thank Dr. C. G. Adams, Mr. H. A. Toombs and Mr. D. L. F. Sealy for
critically reading the manuscript.

One of the authors (A. J. R.) would like to thank Professor Lord
Energlyn for the facilities rendered available in the Department of Geology,
University of Nottingham, and Dr. H. W. Ball, Keeper of Palaeontology,
British Museum (Natural History) for permission to study the museum
collections. The work was undertaken during the tenure of a NERC
Research Studentship.

REFERENCES

PORTER, E. M., 1936. A Record of a new outcrop of London Clay, near Kew, Surrey. Proc-
Geol. Ass., 47, 269.

VENABLES, E. M. and TAYLOR, H. E., 1963. An Insect Fauna of the London Clay. Proc.
Geol. Ass., 73, 273-279.

WRIGLEY, A., 1924. Faunal Divisions of the London Clay, illustrated by some exposures near
London. Proc. Geol. Ass., 35, 245-259.

— — — , 1940. The faunal succession in the London Clay, illustrated in some new exposures near
London. Proc. Geol. Ass., 51, 230-245.

( Received February 1969 )

ADDITIONS TO LONDON CLAY BIOTS OF OXSHOTT

125

Further Additions to the London Clay
Biota of Oxshott, Surrey

By Adrian J. Rundle and John Cooper

( Department of Geology , University of Nottingham, and Department of
Palaeontology, British Museum ( Natural History ))

t

INTRODUCTION

The pit of the Oxshott Brickworks Ltd. near Oxshott, Surrey (TQ
133602) is probably the best known inland exposure of London Clay in
the London Basin. The intensive study of the pit between the years 1951
and 1955 by members of the Geology Section of this Society resulted in the
accumulation of a large number of macrofossil specimens. On the basis
of these Brown and Castell (1954 and 1955) were able to record a total of
forty-six species belonging to six phyla. They concluded on faunal and
lithological grounds that the clay exposed belonged to Wrigley’s (1924
and 1940) division 5 of the London Clay of the London Basin. At about
the same time five species of foraminifera were listed by Bowen (1954)
in his general work on the London Clay foraminifera. This list was
considerably enlarged a few years later by Hampton (1957) who recorded
a further twenty-six species of foraminifera. The most recent additions
to the fauna are the four species of teleost otoliths listed by Stinton (1966).

Since the publication of Brown and Castell’s work Mr. Castell received
several more unrecorded species of mollusca from members of the Society.
It was Mr. Castell’s intention to publish these, especially as the pit is now
filled with water and geologically inaccessible. Unfortunately this has
not been possible and the task has been entrusted to the present authors.
The list presented below includes these additions together with others
obtained as a result of processing some remaining concretions in the
British Museum (Natural History).

We would like to express our sincere thanks to Mr. C. P. Castell for
all his help and encouragement to both authors over the past few years.
We would also like to acknowledge Messrs. J. Mitchell and J. W. Simons
for collecting some of the material studied for this note, and Mr. J. S. H.
Collins for supplying the additional arthropod records.

The format of the list remains the same as that used by Brown and
Castell (1954 and 1955). The specimens are deposited in the Department
of Palaeontology, British Museum (Natural History).

BIOTIC LIST

PLANTAE

Undetermined diatoms. Frequent. (!)• Several pyritic moulds probably referable to Cos -
cinodiscus (preserved on a cavity slide).

BIVALVIA

Abra splendens (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

Nucula sp. indet. Rare. (2-5).

GASTROPODA

Architectonica bistriata (Deshayes). Rare. (4-5).

Bonellitia laeviuscula (J. Sowerby). Rare. (2-5).

B. subevulsa (d’Orbigny). Rare. (5).

Eocypraea oviformis (J. Sowerby). Rare. (3-5).

Eopleurotoma wetherelli (Edwards). Rare. (4-5).

Eulima ferroviae Wrigley. Rare. (5).

Euthriofusus {Wrigley a) transversarius Wrigley. Frequent. (3-5).

Fusinus coniferus (J. Sowerby). Rare. (5).

Hemipleurotoma macrobia (Edwards). Rare. (2-5).

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THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Litiopa sulculosa (Edwards MS.). Rare. (5).

Murex subcoronatus d’Orbigny. Rare. (4-5).

M. subcristatus d’Orbigny. Rare. (3-5).

Sassia morrisi Wrigley. Rare. (3-5).

Scalaridae sp. undet. Rare. (2-5).

CEPHALOPODA (determined by Mr. D. Phillips)

? Deltoidonautilus sowerbyi (J. de C. Sowerby). Rare. (3). Not definitely determinate as only
the crushed nuclear whorls are present.

ANNELIDA

Undetermined annelid jaws (scolecodonts). Rare. (2).

ARTHROPODA (determined by Mr. J. S. H. Collins)

Dromilites lamarcki (Desmarest). Rare. (3-5).

Portunites incerta Bell. Rare. (2-5).

ECHINODERMATA

Indeterminate stellaroid plate. Rare. (2-5).

REFERENCES

BOWEN, R. N. C., 1954. Foraminifera of the London Clay. Proc. Geol. Ass., 65 (2), 125-174,
4 figs., 1 chart.

BROWN, M. M. and CASTELL, C. P., 1954. The London Clay of Oxshott, Surrey. Lond. Nat.,
33, 61-64.

- , 1955. Additions to the London Clay Fauna of Oxshott, Surrey. Lond. Nat., 34, 46-48.

HAMPTON, J. S., 1957. A Foraminiferal Assemblage from the London Clay of Oxshott, Surrey.
Lond. Nat., 36, 25-28.

STINTON, F. C., 1966. Fish Otoliths from the London Clay. Appendix in E. CASIER: Faune
Ichthyologique du London Clay (pp. 404-478, pis. 66-68). London (Brit. Mus. (Nat.
Hist.)).

WRIGLEY, A., 1924. Faunal Divisions of the London Clay, illustrated by some Exposures
near London. Proc. Geol. Ass., 35 (3), 245-259.

- , 1940. The Faunal Succession in the London Clay, illustrated in some New Exposures

near London. Proc. Geol. Ass., 51 (3), 230-245.

( Received August 1969)

CONSERVATION REPORT 1 969

127

Conservation Report 1969

By Daphne C. Hersey

(, Secretary , London Nature Conservation Committee)

LOOKING back on this year, probably the most important event is the
beginning of the revision by the Nature Conservancy of Sites of Special
Scientific Interest in the Greater London Area. Forms are provided by
the Conservancy and all proposals must be submitted to Mrs. Small by
early 1970, to be inspected later by Conservancy staff. There will be full
details in next year’s Conservation report.

As usual in the London Area we have been much occupied with roads
and water. Our Chairman, Mr. Milne-Redhead, is in the forefront of
yet another battle to save a Surrey Common — this time Mitcham. Mr.
Berry, Deputy Director of Parks for the London Borough of Merton,
produced a far-seeing scheme for the reconstitution of a natural type of
woodland and heathland vegetation on the Common, comparable to that
on Wimbledon Common. To do this, the A road from Croydon would
need to be moved to the Southern boundary of the Common, and its
interchange with the M23 moved a hundred yards south. The scheme
was favourably received by the Common Conservators, the Committee,
and the Surrey Naturalists Trust. Our Chairman then submitted it to
the Ministry of Transport who had no objection to it in principle but
stated that the extra money it would require was not available in the
Motorway funds. It was then submitted to the Nature Conservancy, to
the Greater London Council’s Department of Planning and Transporta¬
tion, and to the Member of Parliament for Mitcham. Now, at the close
of the year, it is still under consideration by the Greater London Council,
and Mr. Berry is hoping to get some publicity for it in the national press.

Pressure by other amenity groups on stretches of water continues,
sometimes but not always, leading to a conflict of interests with naturalists.
Sporting activities such as water ski-ing are detrimental to wild life, but
those who pursue them usually have more money than naturalists organisa¬
tions and are often more willing to use their money to further their own
interests. It is becoming increasingly apparent that in order to protect
gravel pits and other water centres of wild life, naturalists are going to
have to find more money and not take their use for granted. The Com¬
mittee were asked to lend their support to the Berkshire, Buckingham¬
shire and Oxfordshire Naturalists Trust in opposing plans for water
ski-ing on gravel pits adjoining the Old Slade Lane Nature Reserve —
water which in winter holds up to 1,000 duck. This complex of pits is
of primary importance in the Colne Valley area, but although the natural¬
ists objections to the London Ski Club’s scheme were discussed by Eton
Rural District Council, the proposal to develop the pits was allowed by
a narrow majority. This was not however the end of the matter for much
to our pleasure this decision was reversed by the Minister and the pits are
now safe.

Mr. Milne-Redhead on behalf of the Surrey Naturalists Trust, has
advised the South-East region of the Nature Conservancy that it would be
wise not to extend permission for sailing on the gravel pit at Staines Moor
for more than one year. Following a meeting between the Chief Supplies

128

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Engineer, members of this Committee and the Ornithological Section, it
was stated that restricted sailing is to be allowed on the King George VI
Reservoir for an experimental period and that for the time being there
would be no further recreational use of the other Metropolitan Water
Board reservoirs. Walthamstow Reservoirs are now being drained for
restoration, and it is hoped that some protection can be given to the
heronry there.

Angling does not usually present a clash of interests with natural
history, and when Mr. Milne-Redhead received a letter from the secretary
of the Bath Road Piscatorial Society expressing concern at the proposed
development of Hithermoor Road Pit, Stanwell Moor, as a nature
reserve, he was able to reassure him, pointing out that in two of the Surrey
Trust reserves, the fishing rights were let out to angling clubs, and that
with a wardening system there could be direct benefit to both interests.
Observers are studying the Bugle Gravel Pit, Shepperton, prior to its
being made a nature reserve which it is hoped will be run by the Surrey
Trust with London Weekend Television.

A letter was received from the Thamesside Research and Development
Group enquiring into the effect on bird life between Richmond and
Greenwich if the proposed Thames Barrage comes into being and the
mud flats are permanently covered with water. The Committee stressed
the importance of the Thames reach between Brentford and Isleworth
adjoining Syon Park where is the only natural river bank of the tidal
Thames above London with the creeks and swampy land adjacent to it
making it an ideal feeding ground for birds. This is an SSSI and the
large amount of mud exposed at low tide makes it a popular sheltering
ground for duck and waders. If the tidal flow is completely stopped, it
will be less attractive, but if solitude remains, the Tide Meadow at Syon
will still be congenial to some birds, especially heron and snipe, and
should not affect the rare tree roost of the cormorants.

It is pleasing that some landowners as well as the Naturalists Trusts
are anxious to improve their land for nature conservation management.
Mr. Milne-Redhead was asked to discuss conservation with the Duke
of Northumberland’s agent at Syon. The Duke wishes to leave the Park
in its natural state but is worried about river bank erosion due to the
increased speed of river craft. Methods of bank stabilisation are being
enquired into. At Wimbledon, the Nature Conservancy has submitted
a report on management and wild life, and at Mitcham the Superintendent
of Parks, and Merton Borough staff have a plan for restoring spoilt areas.
The Conservators of Petersham Common have employed a firm for
selective clearing and an excellent job has been done. At the Godstone
Reserve angling is now possible since weeds were cleared with “Aqua-
death”. It is thought that this weed could be the result of silting and a
floating gate may be the answer to it. Mr. R. Clarke who does such
sterling work there has appealed for volunteers to pull up marginal weed
in order to preserve such rarities as Rumex maritimus and Berula erecta.
The National Trust is helping to clear Hawthorn scrub at South Hawke,
and at Happy Valley near Earthing Down, the London Borough of
Croydon’s cutting of Hawthorn and Dogwood has led to an increase in
chalk flora.

A most interesting experiment in conservation is being carried out by
Mr. Milne-Redhead on behalf of L.N.H.S., with the scheme to reintroduce
Bluebells to urban woodlands. Following his appeal in the May edition

CONSERVATION REPORT 1 969

129

of Wildlife and the Countryside , over half a million seeds have been sent
by readers from all over the country. When it is borne in mind that there
are 6,490 seeds in an ounce, it is apparent that the public response was
very gratifying. Half of these are to be sown mixed in sand at the foot
of Star and Garter Hill and the main road in Richmond, whilst the rest
will be grown in Highgate Wood. This is one of many proofs that public
interest in natural history' continues and with leadership and direction a
great deal can be achieved.

The Godstone Reserve had 400 visitors on its Open Day and the Nature
Trail at Ranmore was one of several run by Trusts this summer which
proved very popular. Greenwich Council are proposing to set aside part
of the new Thamesmead land as a nature reserve — a far-sighted measure
if it is well-managed and maintained in a wild state. It is hoped that in
due course there will be a small educational Nature Reserve on Petersham
Common, Surrey, and in the same county, the grounds of Fairdean School,
Chipstead, are virtually a private nature reserve.

Members of the Committee have learned a great deal more about
Geology since the President, Mr. Butler, joined us to represent Geological
interests, and we have learnt too how easily geological sites can be com¬
pletely lost through lack of public interest, and mismanagement by local
councils. At Bexley, Wansunt Pit has been taken off the list of Sites of
Special Scientific Interest because its interest has declined with rubbish
tipping which made suitable maintenance difficult. In the same area,
at Perry Street, Crayford, one of the brickearthpits at the recreation ground
has been filled in and another used for rubbish dumping. Because of the
state of Radlett-Newberries Park pit, none of the “pudding stone*’
for which it was known can be seen, and again in Hertfordshire, the
Potterscrouch chalk pit near St. Albans is in a poor state. The Radlett
pits are probably beyond recovery. It is not surprising that the Nature
Conservancy, aware of the lack of care from which so many geological
sites suffer, is circulating pamphlets concerning this to the County Trusts.
Children are sometimes another problem in sandpit areas. At Charlton,
some erosion is caused by children who gain unauthorised entry, and re¬
pairs to fencing and extra supervision during weekends and holidays will
help to combat this. The attention of teachers in charge of parties will
be drawn to the need to control the behaviour of children on the slopes.
There has been a great deal of correspondence with the Geologists Asso¬
ciation, the G.L.C., and other bodies concerning this sandpit which is a
site of national geological importance, for it was thought that its future
could be insecure if transferred by the G.L.C. to the London Borough of
Greenwich as is likely to happen if Maryon Park itself is transferred. The
attention of the Council’s solicitor is to be drawn to the special nature of
the site and in consultation with the Borough the safe-guarding of the
geological formation will be stressed.

Mrs. Small and Mr. Milne-Redhead were present at the Joint Planning
meeting of the South Eastern Trusts and the Nature Conservancy, the
first meeting dealing with broad principles of planning for conservation
in the South-East. Although the only parts of the Society’s area dis¬
cussed were the North Downs and the Colne Valley, this was most
informative. The Special Conference on gravel pits, mineral workings
and land reclamation arranged by the River Thames Society and Thames
Planning and Amenities Forum was attended by Mrs. Small on April 17,
and Mr. Milne-Redhead was the L.N.H.S. representative at the

130

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Corporation of the City of London’s meeting to launch the new Conserva¬
tion Centre to be established in Epping Forest. It was with pleasure that
we learnt of the appointment of Mr. Paul Moxey, until recently a member
of this Committee, as Warden of the new £70,000 Centre due to be
opened in 1970.

1970 is of course, European Conservation Year, and the Trusts are
very busy organising lectures, courses, films, public meetings of all kinds,
exhibitions, and nature trails. The Society’s work in this direction has
been undertaken by Mrs. Small, and an excellent and very full programme
awaits us. However, to quote the wartime tag — “It all depends on you’’ —
on all of us — not only to maintain public interest, but also to see that sites
worthy of conservation really are conserved and protected.

Obituary

LEONARD PARMENTER, 1903-1969

With the death of our Honorary Vice-President Len Parmenter on
March 4 1969, the Society lost one of its most devoted members. He was
one of the giants of our post-war reconstruction, and with his administra¬
tive ability, fertile mind and tireless energy he did as much as anyone to
bring about the huge growth in our membership in the years between
1944 and 1952.

Parmenter was one of the leading amateur entomologists of his day,
but his achievements in this specialised field have been recorded elsewhere
(1969, Ent. Record, Vol. 81, 182-4). The purpose of these notes is to pay
tribute to his services to our Society, of which he was a member for 44
years. During this long period he held office of one sort or another for
no less than 40 years, broken only by his military service during the
Second World War.

His forte lay in field natural history, and throughout his membership
he regularly attended and led field meetings, largely in his favourite
county of Surrey. He also spoke frequently at indoor meetings, while his
contributions to the London Naturalist began in 1937 and continued until
1968 : in all, he wrote 17 papers for our journal, of which his series of three
papers on the Diptera (Flies) of Bookham Common have become widely
recognised as a classic of their kind.

OBITUARY

131

His encouragement of young members should also be recorded. He
went out of his way, year after year, to invite young entomologists to join
our Society, to speak to any new faces he noticed at meetings, and in every
way to foster the interest of beginners in natural history.

His financial training and abilities enabled him to serve the Society as
Treasurer and as a trustee for our investments over a number of years.

Those of us who served with and under him on the Council of the
Society will remember the wise and calm lead he so often gave us. There
were those at Council meetings who could be relied on to parade their
hobby-horses, and there were those, more welcome, who frequently
lightened our discussions by shafts of wit. Parmenter was in neither of
these camps. He would sit stolidly hunched up in his place, absorbing
the arguments, which were sometimes heated and apparently irrecon¬
cilable; and then he would weigh in, with his characteristic matter-of-fact
earthiness tinged with a dry humour, and propose a constructive solution
which often met with general acceptance. He so clearly had the long¬
term well-being of the Society foremost in his mind that his opinions always
carried a good deal of weight. Moreover, he was felt to be highly quali¬
fied to pronounce on issues which cut across sectional boundaries by reason
of his long experience and active participation in no less than three of the
Society’s Sections, including the very important Ornithological Section.

Even after he retired to the New Forest in 1966 he continued in
correspondence to take a close interest in our affairs. With his untimely
death from heart trouble many of us lost a counsellor to whom we had
long been used to turn for advice on so many problems.

R. M. Payne

A tribute to L. Parmenter

T EN PARMENTER and myself joined the Society within a few weeks
-L' of each other in the winter of 1925/26, both of us as keen ornithologists
Immediately on joining the Society, Parmenter began to report the bird
species for the Inner London parks and reservoirs to the Recorder,
Mr. A. Holte MacPherson. Soon he took over the Recording himself,
in 1929.

For the first ten years, Len Parmenter was devoted to the interests of
the Ornithological Section. In turn he was Field Meeting Secretary,
Recorder for four years, Curator and finally Chairman, both before and
again, after the War. For 15 years he served on the Section Committee.
In all these posts he helped tremendously to promote the active field work,
for which our Society is famous.

At the end of five years, Parmenter had also taken up the study of the
Diptera, and was elected to the Entomological Section as a Committee
member in 1935. As I was on the same committees, we again met fre¬
quently, and I can testify to how rapidly the Section expanded in numbers
and usefulness, owing to his enthusiasm. We also often met on the same
rambles, or helped to record in the same Surveys. He was an exceedingly
delightful, gay and informative companion.

132

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Within a couple of years of joining, and until our respective retirements
from the London Area, we were both actively engaged in the administra¬
tion of the Society, first as members of the same Sections, and then on the
Council. I therefore saw a good deal of Parmenter, while he occupied
in due course several secretarial and other posts, and we all came to rely
tremendously on him.

In 1936 the Society founded an Ecology Section, to which Parmenter
became Secretary. The first survey initiated was to Limpsfield Common,
Surrey and he compiled the yearly reports and also published in the
Society’s Journals, lists of the Diptera taken on the survey. When in
1941, the ecologists were obliged to switch to Bookham Common,
Parmenter took on the Diptera of that survey, with the same thoroughness
and enthusiasm. All this work had to be suspended however, from 1943
to 1946, because of his enforced absence from the London Area. He
also resigned all the Society posts.

I did not see him again till the winter of 1945, when he was home once
more to Thornton Heath. He was elected Chairman of the Ecology
Section and a committee member of the Entomology Section, 1946 and
back on Council 1947. For three years from 1949 he was the Society’s
President and for the following five years, the Treasurer. He was elected
Vice-President in 1957, the year I left England for good.

For all these 30 years, and in every post he held, no-one could have
been more efficient, constructive, imaginative, helpful and dependable.
The Society owes him a very great debt.

Cynthia Longfield

Books

The Victorian Fern Craze, by D. E. Allen. 83 + xii pages. Hutchinson
of London, 1969. 21s.

This interesting essay on the origins and course of the Victorian
obsession with ferns is well worth the attention of naturalists who can
take a detached view of their hobby. Mr. Allen has done a great deal of
research into his subject, so that for instance we learn that Ward, for all
his fame, was by no means the first to grow ferns in glass cases; and that
the removal of the excise duty on glass in 1845 had a marked effect on the
development of fern cultivation. But beyond this, the book is enlivened
throughout with perceptive remarks on the contemporary social habits
and preoccupations which influenced the rise and fall of the fern craze.
It is unusual to find a social historian writing a book on a natural history
subject, but this is what we have here. Indeed, this is such a well-written
and attractive study that one can only hope that Mr. Allen will explore
other fields in what the publisher’s blurb refers to as the “cultural no¬
man’s land . . . between the history of taste and the history of science.”

The plentiful illustrations are all taken from Victorian publications,

BOOKS

133

and their somewhat monotonous sameness is no doubt intentional. The
general format of the book is pleasing, and I noticed only a single mis¬
print, “cryptograms” instead of “cryptogams” on page 66. The Appen¬
dix of “new words brought into use by the fern craze”, with dates of their
first recorded use, is interesting, though it seems doubtful whether un¬
hyphened combinations such as “fern collector” merit inclusion.

R. M. Payne

A Key to the British Fresh- and Brackish-water Gastropods , by T. T. Macan,
third edition. 47 pages + 15 text figs. Freshwater Biological
Association, Scientific Publication No. 13, 1969. 4s. 6d.

The first edition of this key was enthusiastically reviewed in 1949 in
the London Naturalist. It was then the only work in print on the subject,
but now the aspiring conchologist can choose from several illustrated
works on the British Land and Fresh-water Molluscs.

However, none of them approaches this key in value for money and
in the excellent illustrations of every species found in such habitats. The
only really unsatisfactory figure is that of Valvata cristata which is oper-
culate and has a circular aperture; the specimen drawn shows neither of
these characters, and if not a Planorbis, is most abnormal and misleading.

The nomenclature has been brought up to date. There are “Notes
on Ecology”, with special reference to the Lake District and a short
bibliography.

C. P. Castell

A Short History of the Brown-tail Moth , 1782, by William Curtis. A
Facsimile reproduction, 13 + xvii and Plate. Curwen, 1969.
4vo. £3 15s. Od.

This historic and in fact quite classic short review of the Brown-tail
Moth was produced by that eminent early authority on Entomology,
William Curtis almost 200 years ago. It is remarkable, when one reads
his very precise Treatise on the life history of this insect and the devastation
caused by hosts of larvae in the vicinity of London, how advanced the
observers of Natural History were already in those somewhat bygone days.
His coloured plate, too, of the moth and its earlier stages could hardly be
improved upon even in these enlightened times. It is as a whole an excel¬
lent sample of precision in observation and deduction with effective
recommendations how to cope with the current pest.

It therefore seems very fitting that this possibly unique account of
one particular species of our lepidoptera in the late 18th century should
be reproduced in such a very fine facsimile form on the original type of
paper. Naturally some explanation of the work and its author should
be included and to this end the first 12 pages are devoted to a most
scholarly and erudite study of the life of William Curtis by Dr. William
T. Stearn of the Botany Department of the British Museum (Natural
History). Dr. Stearn has indeed given a most concise account of this
most colourful entomologist and above all botanist, whose great con¬
tribution to science was his “Flora Londinensis” (1775-1798) at a time
when the Fritillary flower could be found in meadows at Mortlake and
cotton-grass growing in the Battersea marshes. It was the sudden
appearance of these larvae devouring all vegetation in their wake in and
around London that prompted Curtis in 1782 to produce this memorable

134

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

short paper. It is fortunate that the Brown-tail seems now confined to
purely seaboard localities from Suffolk to the Isle of Wight as pointed out
by D. S. Fletcher, also of the Natural History Museum, in another very
interesting survey of the occurrence and present distribution of this insect
both in this country and elsewhere, especially the United States where
it has become a very costly pest in the eastern region since it was accident¬
ally brought in there late in the last century. Both introductions have
very useful lists of literature appended. The thin volume is attractively
bound and what with the good quality of the paper the price of 75s. does
not seem excessive.

C.G.M. de Worms

The Growth of Natural History in Stuart England from Gerard to the Royal
Society , by F. D. and J. F. M. Hoeniger. (Folger Booklets on
Tudor and Stuart Civilization.) 54 pages + 19 plates. University
Press of Virginia, Charlottesville; Oxford University Press, London.
Published for the Folger Shakespeare Library, August 1969. 10s.

This interesting little booklet forms the second of two dealing with the
change in man’s approach to nature which took place between about
1500 and 1700. The present booklet picks up the story with the pub¬
lication of Gerard’s Herbal in 1597.

The name of the author of this work, John Gerard, is probably asso¬
ciated with English herbals to the exclusion of most others to the naturalist
who does not specialise in botany. The authors say that “a rogue’s
accomplishments often make a better story than an honest man’s”, and
certainly Gerard had his “seamy” side to the extent that he was inventive
when the facts were not readily available.

Many other famous — and more reliable— works are quoted and pleas¬
ing thumb-nail sketches of some of the scientific “classics” are given.

Within the limits of the title — dealing only with natural history — the
book forms an excellent introduction to anyone interested in this fascinating
period, and a section dealing with suggested reading will be invaluable.

Many of the plates are familiar from works of the period, and some of
them must always command admiration for the skill of the men who used,
so skilfully, the comparatively primitive instruments of their day.

Perhaps seeming expensive at 10s. (probably because of its American
origin) it is nevertheless good value.

R. C. Vernon

Nature Conservation in Britain , by Sir Dudley Stamp. 273 pages with
extensive bibliography and four appendices. Collins New Natura¬
list series, 1969. 36s.

This was Sir Dudley Stamp’s last book — he died before it could be
published — and as both geography and nature conservation owe so much
to him, it is indeed a fitting memorial in this European Conservation Year.
He aimed to give “A snap-shot picture of the present stage of progress,”
and this he does, producing a general background to the conservation
movement and its history, with chapters on the Nature Conservancy, the
Trusts, and other bodies. Each part of the British Isles is discussed
extensively with reference to the special characteristics of its reserves, and
these are sections which would be well worth reading prior to visiting any
part of the country unknown to one. There is an extensive list of centres

BOOKS

135

suitable for field studies, and the appendices are particularly useful for
here are listed the names and addresses of County Trusts, reserves, national
parks, and naturalists organisations. There are chapters on such con¬
troversial subjects as the problem of introductions, reserve management
and control, the work of zoos, the law and the land, plus the effect of
modem farming and forestry on conservation.

Throughout the book, Sir Dudley views nature conservation as part
of the world-wide problem of resource conservation and points out that
whereas the attempt to protect animals and plants by legislation was
formerly regarded as the work of a few rather eccentric sentimentalists
merely anxious to preserve the countryside as it was in their youth — a
wrong view of conservation — man’s care for his natural environment is
now regarded as an essential concern of civilized society.

For anyone who found Dr. Fraser Darling’s recent Reith lectures
absorbing, this book is a “must”. Others not so interested in these vital
problems of our times would do well to glance at this book; as always
Sir Dudley Stamp's lucid prose is a delight.

D. C. Hersey

The Library

Recent additions to the library include : —

Barnes, H. F. Gall Midges of Economic Importance. Vol. 8. 1969.

Brown, G. M. and others. Geologists’ Association Guide: The Tertiary
Igneous Geology of the Isle of Skye. 1969.

Clarke, H. Bird Watching. 1968.

Condry, W. M. The Snowdonia National Park. 1966.

Cornwell, P. B. The Cockroach. 1968.

Davies, L. A Key to the British Species of Simuliidae (Diptera). 1968.
Eckert, A. W. Wild Season. 1968.

Hynes, H. B. N. A Key to the Adults and Nymphs of British Stoneflies
(Plecoptera). 1967.

Ing, B. A Census Catalogue of Myxomycetes. 1968.

Kirkaldy, J. F. Fossils in Colour. 1967.

Kirkaldy, J. F. Minerals and Rocks in Colour. 1968.

Moore, I. Grass and Grasslands. 1966.

Peigler, D. N. The Polyporaceae. 1968.

Petch, D. N. and Swann, E. L. Flora of Norfolk. 1968.

Polunin, O. Flowers of Europe. 1969.

Skeihorn, R. R. and others. Geologists’ Association Guide: The Tertiary
Igneous Geology of the Isle of Mull. 1969.

Since the library has been at Ealing, a considerable collection of Ray
Society publications has been built up. The Administration and Finance
Committee has given permission for this run to be completed if and when
further volumes become available. Nine more parts were added this
year.

136

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

Statement of Affairs

1968 1969

£

s.

d.

£

s.

d.

£

s.

d.

The Hindson Bequest

Amounts received from the Executors of the Estate

—

—

—

during the year

14,000

0

0

—

—

—

Add: Interest received on Investments during the year

224

8

8

14,224

8

8

Accumulated Fund

(75

2

9

Balance at 1st November, 1968

(deficit)

(75

2

9)

Premises Fund

1,802

0

0

Balance at November 1, 1968...

1,910

0

0

108

0

0

Add: Interest for the year

124

3

0

1,910

0

0

2.034

3

0

Less: Transfer to General Account ...

68

18

3

£ 1,910

0

0

1,965

4

9

Life Composition Account

400

0

0

Balance at November 1, 1968...

400

0

0

—

—

—

Less: Transfer to General Account ...

100

0

0

£400

0

0

300

0

0

Library Cataloguing Fund

£ 200

0

0

Balance at November 1, 1968... .

200

0

0

Castell Research Centre Fund (Carnegie Scheme)

50

0

0

Balance at November 1, 1968...

125

0

0

75

0

0

Add: Transfer from General Account

75

0

0

£125

0

0

200

0

0

Ornithological Research Fund

204

5

11

Balance at November 1, 1968...

173

9

2

5

4

0

Add: Royalties received in year

3

12

6

13

19

3

Interest received in year...

12

10

3

223

9

2

i

189

11

11

50

0

0

Less: Grant to Atlas Scheme ...

—

—

—

£173

9

2

189

11

11

Other Reserves

550

0

0

London Bird Report No. 33 Reserve ...

550

0

0

75

0

0

Plant Mapping Scheme Publication ...

75

0

0

41

8

4

London Naturalist No. 48 Reprints ...

50

0

0

—

—

—

Hire of Halls .

100

0

0

—

—

—

European Conservation Year ...

50

0

0

50

0

0

Printing of Rules

—

—

—

£716

8

4

825

0

0

£3,449

14

9

£17,829

2

7

STATEMENT OF AFFAIRS

137

at 31st October, 1969

1968
£ s. d.

The Hindson Bequest Investments

- Quoted Investments, at cost ...

- — Bank Deposit Account...

General Fund Investments
229 4 6 Quoted Investments, at cost

Current Assets

Balance at Bank:

72

9

1

Current Account

748

9

2

Deposit Account

2,399

£.3,220

12

10

0

3

Deposit with Central Investment Company

1969

£ s. d. £ s. d.

... 10,000 0 0
... 4,224 8 8

- 14.224 8 8

154 4 6

331 6 2

564 11 11
2,554 11 4

- 3,450 9 5

Audited and found correct, A. J. BARRETT, Hon. Treasurer.

November 18, 1969. R. W. HALE, Hon. Auditor.

H. B. CAMPLIN, Hon. Auditor.

138

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

GENERAL

1968

1968

£

s.

d.

Payments

£ s.

d.

241

3

6

Hire of Halls

148 1

11

107

8

1

Sectional Expenses

... 117 9

4

42

6

6

Subscriptions to other Societies

32 16

6

101

19

5

Printing and Stationery ... . .

84 14

10

26

2

4

Library Expenses

112 8

4

9

6

9

Castell Research Centre

31 2

9

6

0

0

L.N.C.C .

32 13

0

200

0

0

Honoraria

137 10

0

16

6

Covenant Expenses

3

9

12

3

1

Telephone

2 13

6

61

5

3

Postages ...

120 13

10

42

11

6

Sundries ...

46 16

7

9

8

Bird Film Payment

. . . - -

—

15

8

0

Purchase of Wooden Cabinet .. .

- -

—

16

9

0

Calling of Special General Meeting ...

... - -

—

13

17

0

Refund of subscriptions credited in error by Bank...

- -

—

1,407

16

5

Grant to Publications Account

... 1,820 13

1

—

—

—

European Conservation Year Grant ...

50 0

0

—

—

—

Purchase, Removal and Overhaul Duplicator

159 9

0

—

—

—

Loss from Sale of securities (£75 — £28 14s. 5d.)

46 5

7

2,305

3

0

2,943 12

0

Transfers to Reserves:

75

0

0

Carnegie Scheme

75 0

0

—

—

—

Hire of Halls .

... 100 0

0

75

0

0

Plant Mapping Scheme Research and Publication

. . . - -

—

50

0

0

Printing Rules

... - -

—

—

—

—

European Conservation Year ... .

50 0

0

£2,505

3

0

£3,168 12

0

261

9

6

Programme

PUBLICATIONS

. 251 18 2

41

8

4

London Naturalist Reserve for Reprints

. 50 0

0

590

19

10

London Naturalist No. 48

. 1,020 11

10

550

0

0

London Bird Report No. 33 Reserve ...

. 550 0

0

41

6

0

Addressing and Wrapping

. 45 14

6

98

0

6

Postages ...

. 104 5

9

£1,583

4

2

£2,022 10

3

STATEMENT OF AFFAIRS

139

ACCOUNT

1968

1969

£

s.

d.

Receipts

£

s.

d.

£

s.

d.

2,056

7

7

Subscriptions Current ...

... 2,561

12

0

8

5

0

Subscriptions Arrears ...

... -

—

—

97

0

0

Subscriptions Advance...

62

5

0

53

10

0

Entrance Fees ...

32

10

0

2.215

2

7

2,656

7

0

18

11

6

Donations

. • • ...

60

7

11

99

6

11

Tax recovered from Deeds of Covenant

...

135

10

7

/ 8

0

6

Interest on Investments

8

0

6

44

7 11

Westminster Bank Deposit Account Interest

53

6

5

27

15

10

Central Inst. Co. Interest on Reserves (excluding Premises Account)

30

16

4

22

10

6

Bird Film Receipts

... ...

5

5

0

3

3

8

Sundries ...

—

—

—

—

—

—

Transfer from Printing Rules Reserve

... ...

50

0

0

—

—

—

Transfer from Life Composition Fund

...

100

0

0

—

—

—

Transfer from Premises Fund...

...

68

18

3

66

3

7

Excess of payments over receipts

—

—

—

£ 2,505 3 0

£3,168 12 0

ACCOUNT

£ s. d. £ s. d.

125 15 0 Sale of Publications ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 141 9 11

20 19 0 Advertisements and Sale of Mailing Lists ... ... ... ... 27 10 0

— - Lon don Naturalist No. 47 Reprint Reserve ... ... ... ... — -

28 13 9 London Bird Report No. 32 Reserve (£550 — £549.12.9) ... ... 7 3

1,407 16 5 Transfer from General Account ... ... ... ... ... 1,820 13 1

- Donation towards printing cost of London Naturalist ... ... 32 10 0

£1,583 4 2 £2,022 10 3

' S}

140

THE LONDON NATURALIST, NO. 49, I97O

INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors are asked to study these notes with care, to save themselves
and the Editor unnecessary work in the revision of manuscripts.

DATE OF SUBMISSION OF PAPERS

Papers should be submitted to the Editor (address in Programme) by
the end of January and not later than the middle of February if they are
to be considered for publication in the same year.

TEXT

Papers and short notes should be submitted in final fully corrected
form. They should be typed, with double spacing and a wide margin, on
one side of the paper only. Submission in duplicate is requested if
possible, and authors are advised to retain a second copy for their own
reference purposes. The total number of words should be pencilled at
the head of the paper.

FOOTNOTES

Footnotes should be avoided wherever possible, but may be used for
brief notes which cannot be fitted conveniently into the text. They should
be inserted in the typescript immediately below the line to which they refer.

SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Scientific names should be underlined, and the authority upon which
they are based should be cited. Where English names of species are
employed, it is suggested that a capital letter be used for the beginning of
the name, e.g. Badger.

REFERENCES

References should be listed at the end of the paper, in alphabetica
order of authors’ names, in the following standard form :

MATTHEWS, L. HARRISON (1952). British Mammals. London.

YOUNG, G. W. (1905). The Chalk Area of North-East Surrey.
Proc. Geol. Assoc., 19, 196-206.

The corresponding references in the text would be (Matthews, 1952)
and (Young, 1905).

As far as possible, titles of journals should be abbreviated according
to the latest (4th) edition of the World List of Scientific Periodicals.
Authors who require guidance on this point should consult the Editor.

DATES

These should be in the form June 9, 1964.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS

141

ILLUSTRATIONS

Distribution maps of plants and animals within the Society’s recording
area, and using either the tetrad or the monad system of grid recording,
should be submitted in the form of a Recording Map with symbols in
Indian ink or with black self-adhesive symbols. Solid dots are to be used
to indicate contemporary or recent presence, circles for old records and
crosses (not pluses) for other information, such as introduced species.

Tetrad dots and circles should be 4-0 mm (0T6 ins) and tetrad crosses
should be 5-0 mm (0-20 ins), with a line thickness of 0-8 mm (0-03 ins);
all monad symbols should be 1-6 mm (0-06 ins) with a line thickness of
0-5 mm (0-02 ins). Title, legend, etc., should be written outside the frame
of the map and will be set up by the printer.

Mapping Schemes Secretary can provide Recording Maps and advise
on methods of drawing the symbols.

Line drawings should be submitted separately, in Indian ink on thick
white paper or card, preferably 2x or 3x the size finally intended. Graphs
should be drawn on paper preferably ruled in blue or faint grey. Legends
should be typed separately, as they will be set up by the printer. The use
of stencils or self-adhesive lettering is strongly recommended for place-
names etc. on maps.

The Editor should be consulted in good time if there is any doubt
about the preparation of illustrations. Photographs can be accepted
only after prior consultation.

PROOFS

Galley proofs will be sent to authors for scrutiny, but only essential
corrections can be made at that stage.

OFFPRINTS

Up to 25 free offprints will be supplied on request. Additional copies
may be purchased if an order is made when the proofs are returned.

Note : The opinions expressed in papers and reviews published in the
London Naturalist are those of the Authors, and not necessarily those
of the Society.

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